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RIVERSIDE TEXTBOOKS 
IN EDUCATION 

EDITED BY ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION 
LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY 



DIVISION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 

UNDER THE EDITORIAL DIRECTION 

OF ALEXANDER INGLIS 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION 
HARVARD UNIVERSITY 




Fhotoyjcipli, Brown Brothers 

Fig. 1. The Mount Morris High School, in New York City 

An excellent example of a large and well-lighted building. C. B. J. Snyder, architect 



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HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

How to Build, Equip, and Maintain Them 

BY 

MAY AYRES 

AUTHOR OF "FIRE PROTECTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS," AND CO- 
AUTHOR OF " SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT" 
"HEALTH OF SCHOOL CHILDREN," AND 
*' SAFEGUARDING SCHOOL HOUSES 
FROM fire" 

JESSE F. WILLIAMS, A.B., M.D. 

PROFESSOR OF HYGIENE AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI 

AND 

THOMAS D. WOOD, A.M., M.D. 

PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE 

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY; CHAIRMAN COMMITTEE ON 

HEALTH PROBLEMS, NATIONAL COUNCIL 

OF EDUCATION 




HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 



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COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY MAY AYRES BURGESS, JESSE F. WILLIAMS, AND 
THOMAS D. WOOD 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



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CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS 
U . S . A 



JUL. 20 ll^Jd 



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^ .'' EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 

The subject of school hygiene comprises two general 
\-^-fields. First, the provision of healthful physical environment 
for school children, and second, the conduct of healthful 
school activities. Under the first head we have to do with 
such matters as schoolhouse construction, fire protection, 
lighting, and sanitation; under the second, we deal with 
medical inspection and supervision, playground activities, 
outdoor classes, and the like. 

These two main groups have been subdivided into smaller 
branches, each growing up almost independently of the 
other, and it is only recently that school men have recog- 
nized their essential unity and grouped them all together 
under the general heading of school hygiene. It is not at all 
unusual even now to find large and fairly well-organized 
school systems where the division of physical training has 
little to do with the division of medical inspection; where 
the medical inspection is under the control of a city or 
county board of health; and where the provision of school 
lunches, open-air classes, classes for exceptional children, 
fire protection, and the cleaning of school buildings are all 
matters which concern separate departments within the 
school system. The appointment of an assistant superin- 
tendent of schools in charge of child hygiene and child wel- 
fare, who shall have all such matters under his supervision, 
has only recently been accepted in educational theory, and 
is still a new and not frequently found feature of school 
administration. 

Because the question of school hygiene has never until 
recently been thought of as a whole by educators, but has 



vi INTRODUCTION 

been split up into a score of apparently unrelated minor 
problems, its progress has been erratic. Minimum require- 
ments in some cases are laid down by the State, with im- 
mense detail; in others the State makes hardly any demands 
upon the local school authorities, but leaves them free to 
carry on whatever experiments they will. In general those 
phases of school hygiene which deal with school buildings 
and the material welfare have been given large emphasis, 
while those which deal with child welfare have been neglected. 
The natural result is that in most school systems important 
features of school hygiene are largely overlooked or entirely 
ignored; and that the school superintendent frequently fails 
to have any clear conception of what is demanded by the 
situation. The school authorities, both board and superin- 
tendent, too frequently fail to grasp the subject as a unified 
whole. 

To treat the subject as a unified whole, and in condensed 
form, has been the purpose of the authors of this volume in 
the series. The authors have tried to set forth the essentials, 
under each subdivision of the subject, which the school 
administrator needs to know in order to safeguard the 
health of the children under his care; to show what forms of 
organization the different branches of the subject involve; 
and to give a brief statement of the accepted standards in 
each branch. The volume should prove very useful as a text- 
book in school hygiene in colleges and normal schools, and 
should furnish a basis for intelligent discussion and con- 
structive action by teachers, supervisors, superintendents, 
and school board members. 

Ellwood p. Cubberley 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I. Choosing the Schoolhouse Site . . . 1 

Locating a building — Accessibility — The school census 
and building plans — Relation to public highways — Removal 
from disturbing influences — Size of plot — Lighting — High 
ground — ■ Soil — Improving sites of old buildings — Summary. 

Questions for study and discussion — Selected references. 

CHAPTER II. The School Building 13 

The architect — The plan — Apportionment of space — Unit 
plans — Height of building — Orientation — Foundations — • 
Basements — Roofs — Floors and floor coverings — Walls — 
Doors. 

Questions for study and discussion — Selected references. 

CHAPTER ni. Rooms in the School Building . . 31 

Classroom dunensions — High ceilings — Wardrobes — Spe- 
cial classrooms — Kindergarten — Open-air classrooms — Audi- 
toriums — • The gymnasium — ■ Libraries — Lunchrooms — Dis- 
pensary — Office — Teachers' room — The janitor's room — 
Storerooms. 

Questions for study and discussion — Selected references. 

CHAPTER IV. Classroom Equipment 51 

Platform — Blackboards — Placing and heights — Dust and 
erasers — Desks and chairs; rules for placing — Adjustment 

— Inspection — Should be single — Feet and floor — Rounded 
corners — Shape of seat — Tilting of seat — Support for back 

— The "minus distance" — Desk height — Desk-top slant — 
Movable top — Pedestal chairs — Movable furniture — Work- 
room furniture. 

Questions for study and discussion — Selected references. 

CHAPTER V. Lighting 66 

1. Natural lighting — Unilateral — Breeze windows — Orien- 
tation — ■ Glass area — Placing — Square tops — Height from 
floor — Frames and supports — Circulating window space — 
Prism glass — Overhead lighting — Window shades — Color 
schemes — Lighting in old buildings. 



viii CONTENTS 

2. Artificial lighting — Recent use of light at night — Direct 
glare — Indirect glare — Flickering — ■ Intensity — Shadows — 
Contrasts — Kerosene — Acetylene gas — Installing an acety- 
lene plant — Direct lighting — Indirect lighting — Semi-indirect 
lighting. 

Questions for study and discussion — Selected references. 

CHAPTER VI. Water Supply 88 

Springs and wells — Carrying water by hand — • The school 
well — Water pressure — The individual cup — Bubbling foun- 
tains — Home-made fountains — Cooler attachments — ■ Height 
of fountains — The habit of cleanliness — Lavatories — Hot 
water — ■ Soap — Towels — Baths as punishment — Group show- 
ers — Dressing-rooms — Rural bathing — Tubs and pools — 
Construction of pools — Keeping the water pure — Rules and 
regulations for pools. 

Questions for study and discussion — Selected references. 

CHAPTER VII. Toilets 105 

Typical toilet-rooms — Location and lighting — Walls, ceil- 
ings, and floors — Equipment per number of pupils — ■ Location 
of equipment — Urinals — Latrines — Individual flush — Auto- 
matic flush and nerve strain — Partitions — 'Doors — 'Seats — 
Lavatories near toilets — Ventilation — Extra toilet-rooms — 
Toilet-rooms in high schools — The rural-school problem — 
Hookworm disease — Rural sanitary surveys — ' Rural -school 
toilets — 'The septic tank — Location of rural toilets — The 
L.S.R. privy — Dry privies — Outhouses. 

Questions for study and discussion — Selected references. 

CHAPTER VIII. Heating and Ventilation . . .125 

The lesson of contagious disease — Survey findings — Early 
theories concerning ventilation — Some recent experiments — 
The Springfield Y.M.C A. experiment — Work of the New York 
State Ventilating Commission — ' Five principles of ventilation — 
The ventilating engineer — Legislation — Stoves — Furnaces — 
Hot-water heating — Steam heating — Heating and ventilating 
schemes — ■ Flues; use of windows — Fans — Air cleaning — Air- 
moisteners — ' Thermometers — Thermograph — Thermostats — 
Humidostats — Re- circulation — What shall schoolmen do? 

Questions for study and discussion — Selected references. 

CHAPTER IX. Protecting Schoolhouses from Fire . 160 

Fire protection unpopular — Fire-retarding — Attics — Corri- 
dors — Assembly rooms — Doors — Stairs — Width and hand- 



CONTENTS ix 

rails — Landings — Exits — Railroad doors — Fire escapes — 
The inclined-plane fire escape — Essentials of a fire escape — 
Basement — Cupboards — ■ Manual training and domestic sci- 
ence — Pipes and wires — Sprinklers — • Fire extinguishers — • 
Signals — Fire drills — Fire protection pays. 

Questions for study and discussion — Selected references. 

CHAPTER X. Keeping THE Schoolhouse Clean . . 181 

The janitor — How diseases are transmitted — Prevention of 
contagious diseases — Cleaning of schoolroom floors — Sweep- 
ing and dusting — Scrubbing and care of floors — Use of oil and 
tar — ■ Cleaning walls and blackboards — Keeping toilets clean — 
Other parts of the building — Cleaning the windows — Vacuum 
cleaners — ■ Types of vacuum cleaners — Tools for vacuum 
cleaning — • Suggestions for improving service — Daily cleaning 
schedule — Conferences and study courses for janitor — The 
janitor as a teacher. 

Questions for study and discussion — Selected references. 

CHAPTER XI. Medical Inspection 208 

Medical inspection and compulsory education — Origin of 
medical inspection — Present scope of medical inspection — 
Arguments against medical inspection — ■ Administration of a 
department of school hygiene — Physicians — Nurses — Inspec- 
tion — Records — Clinics — ■ Follow-up work — Staff attitude — 
Textbooks on school hygiene. 

Questions for study and discussion — Selected references. 

CHAPTER XII. Physical Training and Recreation . 227 

Recreation surveys — Commercial amusements — Space for 
play — Part of hygiene teaching — Cooperation of medical in- 
spectors — Posture work — Physiological age — Classroom exer- 
cises — Recess —7 Teachers and games — Activities outside 
school hours — Athletics — The athletic-badge test — Group 
athletics — Public School Athletic League — Educational sports 

— Wider use of school plant — Survey suggestions — Springfield 

— Ipswich — Cleveland. 

Questions for study and discussion — Selected references. 

CHAPTER XIII. Exceptional Children .... 257 

Two groups — Different educational treatment — The socially 
competent — The socially incompetent — • Assignment to classes 

— Open-air schools and fresh-air classes — The three essentials 

— Montclair's experiment. 

\ Questions for study and discussion — Selected references. 



X CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XIV. School Feeding 268 

The argument for school feeding — The Philadelphia experi- 
ment — What school lunches are — Theory of school feeding — ■ 
The concessionnaire — The supervisor — Saleswomen — Pupil 
workers — Centralization of the school lunch — Hygienic re- 
quirements — Records and forms — Costs — Equipment — 
Supervision — Preparation and service — The Philadelphia Re- 
port. 

Questions for study and discussion — Selected references. 



INDEX 285 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. 1. The Mount Morris High School, in New York 

City Frontispiece 

Fig. 2. Three Generations of School Buildings, Saj^ 

Francisco, California 10 

Fig. 3. Three Generations of a School Building, East 

Orange, New Jersey 11 

Fig. 4. The New Empire School at Cleveland ... 14 

Fig. 5. First-Floor Plan for the Empire School, Cleve- 
land 15 

Fig. 6. Typical Manual-Training Department Rooms . 41 

Fig. 7. Typical Household-Economy Rooms . . . .42 

Fig. 8. The Evolution of the Schoolroom Seat . . 56 

Fig. 9. A Movable Schoolroom Chair 57 

Fig. 10. Types of Adjustable Seats and Desks ... 60 

Fig. 11. Adjustable Seats properly Adjusted . . .61 

Fig. 12. Remodeling a School Building to improve the 

Lighting 68 

Fig. 13. Overhead Lighting in an Elementary-School 

Assembly Hall at Holly, Michigan ... 69 

Fig. 14. Indirect Artificial Lighting 84 



xii ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. 15. Semi-Indirect Artificial Lighting .... 85 

Fig. 16. A School Swimming-Pool 108 

Fig. 17. Toilets 109 

Fig. 18. Fire Dangers which need Attention . . . 164 
(a) A Dangerous Basement 
(6) A Fire Trap of a Stairway 

Fig. 19. An Incline as a Substitute for a Stairway . . 165 

Fig. 20. Medical Inspection 210 

Fig. 21. A Dental Clinic in Rochester, New York . .211 

Fig. 22. Physical Training — Girls 234 

Fig. 23. Physical Training — Boys 235 

Fig. 24. An Open-Air Class in Chicago in Winter . . 262 

Fig. 25. An Open-Air School at San Diego, California . 263 



HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

CHAPTER I 

CHOOSING THE SCHOOL SITE 

Locating a building. In the small town or rural com- 
munity the location of the new school building is not infre- 
quently a burning issue. Superintendents have lost their 
places and school boards have failed of reelection because 
of the unpopularity of their decisions. Occasionally this is a 
desirable result; but far too often the pressure brought to 
bear upon educational authorities has been due to the inter- 
ests of local factions, rather than to an appreciation of the 
needs of school children. Sometimes trouble arises over the 
distribution of population. Parents on one side of town are 
unwilling that their children should be obliged to walk a 
quarter of a mile farther than those at the other side of the 
district; and a plot of land is chosen as nearly as possible at 
equal distances from both, and fought for bitterly. Some- 
times the school is desired as a show building, and leading 
citizens demand its location on the main street near the rail- 
road station, police headquarters, and the fire-engine house; 
or a plot of land near the marshes on the lower part of town 
can be used for nothing else, and is urged upon the school 
board because it is for sale cheap. 

It is thoroughly desirable that the people of the com- 
munity should feel this active interest in the erection of their 
new school building, and it is but natural that they should 
wish to have a part in the final decision. Yet local people 
must remember, and school men must forcefully remind 



2 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

them, when necessary, that the schoolhouse is intended pri- 
marily for children; and the location chosen must be, not 
that which most pleases fathers and mothers, but that 
which will provide most fully the educational opportunities 
their children need. 

Accessibility. The location chosen should be within reach 
of all the children; but this does not necessarily mean at 
the center of the district. No child should have to walk 
more than a mile and a half to school; and where the build- 
ing is at a greater distance some means of transportation 
should be provided at public expense. Where city schools 
are placed several miles away in the country, as has fre- 
quently been suggested, for example, in New York, trans- 
portation facilities should be under careful supervision, with 
special cars and through service, so that parents may feel 
no anxiety concerning the children's safety. Parents are in- 
clined to object strongly to any arrangement which takes 
their children more than a few blocks away from home. 
Attempts to do so must be tactfully and gradually intro- 
duced. 

In some of the more sparsely settled States, school build- 
ings have been erected on plain or mountain-side without 
reference to any public highway. Naturally teacher and 
pupils could only reach the spot with difficulty, and it is 
now not uncommon to find legal provision made against 
such isolation. 

The school census and building plans. It is important 
in choosing new sites for school buildings to keep in mind 
the chances of a growing and shifting population. In 
the Cleveland Education Survey Report on Buildings and 
Equipment we find : — 

The change in location of the Otis Steel Company's plant to the 
southwestern part of the city has resulted in a sudden overflow 
of pupils in the Tremont School. Hundreds of families are moviog 



CHOOSING THE SCHOOL SITE S 

into the vicinity of the new works, and demanding school accom- 
modation for their children. Temporary quarters have been ar- 
ranged in basement or "ground-floor" rooms and portables; but 
now the Board is facing the necessity of erecting an annex to 
Tremont and will probably soon need to build a new building in 
the near vicinity. The Harmon School, which has until now been 
seriously overcrowded, is just on the boundary line of what will 
shortly be an immense freight yard. Over one thousand families 
have been forced to leave their homes in order to make room for 
the new tracks. Their children are no longer in the Harmon 
District; but where they are going no one yet knows. They may 
scatter over the city or migrate in a body. The Board is anxiously 
concerned as to their destination; for it may seriously affect the 
school-building policy. 

Besides such sudden changes from one part of the city to 
another, there is the more steady growth and shifting which 
takes place year by year, and which must be taken into 
account in mapping out the school-building policy. The 
school census, which is required by law in many places, and 
which is a regular feature of school administration in most 
progressive communities, furnishes excellent means for 
judging changes and trends in population. The Cleveland 
Report continues : — ■ 

By comparing results from year to year future growth can be 
predicted and new buildings planned accordingly, while smaller 
unexpected shifts can be handled through emergency measures 
during the summer vacation immediately following the census 
returns. The school census should be one basis for shaping the 
future building policy of the Board. 

Relation to public highways. The schoolhouse should be 
near the public highway, but not too near. A hundred years 
ago it was the common thing for buildings to be erected on 
the road itself, not infrequently placed in the center of the 
crossroads, so that vehicles passed on all four sides, and the 
highway served as the only playground. To-day we try to 
secure sites large enough so that the building may be placed 



4 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

at some distance back from the street, or, when this is not 
possible, we plan to have all classrooms face away from the 
street and thus escape part of the noise and dust of travel. 
It is rarely wise to place a school building directly on the 
main thoroughfare, because such a location is apt to bring 
with it, either at the time of building or in the near future, 
the noise of cars and other vehicles, shouts of newsboys 
and peddlers, clanging of police, ambulance, and fire-en- 
gine gongs, and other disturbances which render teaching 
and learning difficult. Moreover, property values on such a 
street are apt to be so high that the schools feel extra grounds 
an extravagance, and little space is secured for playgrounds, 
athletic fields, or gardens. Tall buildings crowd in on every 
side, and there is difficulty in securing proper lighting. In- 
stead of following the rule that "Each child at his seat must 
see the sky," we often furnish the pupil with an uninspiring 
view of brick walls and iron fire escapes. 

In cities and towns the school building should be placed 
on a quiet side street, away from dangerous crossings and 
car tracks. Where it is necessary for all or most of the pupils 
to cross the car tracks, it is probably wise to place the school 
near enough to the crossing so that the teachers may exer- 
cise supervision. In the larger cities such supervision is 
taken in charge by the police force; but in many of the 
smaller places crossings are unprotected and furnish a real 
danger. A zone of quiet should be established around every 
school building. 

Removed from disturbing influences. In both urban and 
rural districts care should be taken to select a school site 
which is at a distance from annoying or improper influences. 
Many States have by legislative act established zones around 
each schoolhouse within which certain activities are pro- 
hibited. For example, in Iowa no bills, posters, or other 
matter advertising liquor or tobacco may be distributed, 



CHOOSING THE SCHOOL SITE 5 

posted, or circulated within four hundred feet of premises 
used for school purposes. Many States provide similar zones 
in which liquor cannot be sold. A regulation of the Dela- 
ware State Board of Health forbids the placing of any stable, 
pigpen, or other building liable to become a nuisance within 
two hundred feet of any schoolhouse, or within one hundred 
feet of the school yard. The Indiana law says there must be 
no steam railroads, livery stables, barns used for breeding 
purposes, noisy industries, or unhealthful conditions within 
five hundred feet of schools, and the State Board of Health 
has defined these "unhealthful conditions" by demanding 
that a zone of five hundred feet radius about the school 
site be free from swampy ground, body of stagnant water, 
cemetery, slaughterhouse, fertilizer-reduction plant, or any 
business or manufacturing establishment which engenders 
noxious odors or vapors or that pollutes the surrounding 
atmosphere by smoke or dust. 

Size of plot. The site must not only be well located with 
reference to accessibility, freedom from noise, odors, and 
the like, but it must also be large enough to make possible 
newer methods in education. In the old days, when all 
learning was book learning, and pupils were expected to sit 
still during the entire school period, there was comparatively 
little need for large school grounds. Even to-day, if the 
teacher is willing to confine his activities to this narrow 
and less fatiguing conception of education, he need concern 
himself little with playgrounds and gardens. But public 
opinion is gradually changing, and the thoroughly up-to- 
date community is scarcely willing to submit its children 
to the outworn methods of a hundred years ago. Mod- 
ern schooling takes place outdoors as well as in; and large 
grounds are necessary if children are to be properly cared 
for. 

That this is a new conception in education may be 



6 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

gathered from reading the various State laws, many of 
which must inevitably be changed in the near future. For 
example, William A. Cook, of the University of Colorado, 
in his study of laws and regulations governing the hygiene 
and sanitation of schoolhouses, published by the United 
States Bureau of Education in 1915, gives as the absolute 
maxima for the size of school sites in certain States, "Dela- 
ware, one half acre; Kentucky and New Hampshire, one 
acre; Kansas, one and a half acres; Massachusetts and 
South Dakota, two acres (although in South Dakota schools 
giving courses in agriculture may purchase ten acres for site 
and demonstration purposes); Maine, three acres; Mary- 
land and North Dakota, five acres." 

While the actual number of square feet in each school 
site must of necessity vary, the grounds selected should be 
large enough to allow for the erection of low buildings — 
not more than two stories high — with an auditorium and 
other special rooms. In addition there should be plenty of 
playground space. The common recommendation of fifty 
square feet per child allows him only about two and a half 
times as much space as he is allotted in the average forty- 
pupil classroom. Such an arrangement is well fitted to quiet 
games of marbles, mumble-peg, or jackstones; but if chil- 
dren are to join in active sports with running and jumping 
they must be provided with at least two hundred square 
feet of playground space for every pupil enrolled. 

In addition to the regular playground space there should 
be some provision for special games, such as handball, 
volley-ball, tennis, or basket-ball. Each country school 
should be provided with a good baseball field, and all of the 
larger schools should have running-tracks. Where land is 
cheap, space for an outdoor theater is a good investment. 
The school grounds should also include ample space for 
individual or group gardening. The rural school should 



CHOOSING THE SCHOOL SITE 7 

never occupy less than three acres of land; the city school 
should be provided with from three to ten acres, depending 
upon the number of children cared for. It is unfortunate 
that many of our city schools are located where land is so 
expensive that little more than enough ground to support 
the building can be purchased. 

Lighting. The school board must look, then, for a plot 
of ground of several acres, easily accessible, and protected 
from noise and nuisances. In addition, the location must 
be such that plenty of sunlight is available throughout the 
year. In mountainous districts the horizon line is often high, 
so that schools built in the valley or on the side hill are dur- 
ing a large part of the day in shadow. Sometimes suggested 
sites are too close to thick groves of trees, or in city districts 
tall buildings cut off much of the light. There are various 
rules for deciding upon the location of buildings with respect 
to light. One is that every child should be able, sitting at his 
seat, to see the sky. Another is that no tree or building 
should be nearer to the school windows than twice its own 
height. Where obstructions occur on one side of the loca- 
tion only, the difficulty may frequently be met by placing 
the windows of the classrooms on the opposite side of the 
building. 

High ground. In rural districts it is frequently necessary 
to provide protection against strong winds and storms. The 
State Board of Health of Vermont refuses to approve a site 
for a rural school unless it is so protected. The common 
practice of locating the school building at the summit of the 
highest hill in town is strongly to be condemned on this and 
several other counts. Not only is a building so situated 
exposed to all the rigors of the climate (which frequently 
render heating problems serious), but the location demands 
unnecessary exertion on the part of teachers and pupils in 
reaching the school, and effectually prevents many parents 



8 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

from ever visiting it. Moreover, such a site is poorly adapted 
to playground use, because there are very few games which 
can be played on a slanting surface; and school gardens so 
located are apt to be of poor soil, and easily washed away 
by violent rains. It is well to build the schoolhouse on land 
higher than that around it, but this should not mean at the 
top of a hill. 

Soil. One of the most important points to be considered 
in the selection of a site for the new school building is the 
character of the soil. Swampy land, clay, or made ground 
are all to be avoided, because of the danger of ground air 
and ground damp. Probably a sandy loam is the most desir- 
able soil for building purposes. For many feet below the 
surface the earth is honeycombed with little crannies and 
interstices, each filled with air which flows from one to the 
next. During a long summer's day the earth, together with 
the earth-bound air, becomes warmed. At the end of the 
day, when the sun goes down, the upper air becomes chilled 
and heavy; it sinks down into the ground and forces out the 
lighter warmed air which has been hidden below the surface. 
This ground air, as it is commonly called, is heavily laden 
with impurities. Bits of vegetable and animal matter, as 
they decompose, give off gases which are carried to the 
outer air. Ground air is heavily charged with moisture. It 
is rich in carbon dioxide, and frequently contains marsh 
gas, hydrogen sulphide, and ammonia. 

When at night the chilled air presses down upon the 
earth's surface, the ground air seeks the easiest means of 
escape. The soil directly beneath the building is apt to be 
dry and warm, and since the pressure of air in the cellar is 
slight, the natural result is that the ground air rushes up from 
the earth through the cellar, as though drawn through a 
huge chimney. In sandy soils it is easy for the air to escape 
directly to the surface, and a gradual shifting takes place all 



CHOOSING THE SCHOOL SITE 9 

day long, but where the surface is hard-baked clay or frozen 
ground, the danger of ground air escaping by way of the 
cellar is very great. The sweating so commonly noticed on 
cellar walls and the musty cellar odor are sure signs of the 
presence of ground air. When ground water rises too near 
the surface and is not quickly evaporated by the sun's rays, 
— where, that is, the soil is impervious and forms a thick 
crust through which air and water move but slowly, — the 
under soil is kept damp and decomposition of organic matter 
is greatly accelerated. As a result, escaping ground air is 
heavily laden with impurities. In choosing a school site, 
therefore, we must avoid low, marshy land where there is 
likely to be a constant supply of moisture below the sur- 
face, or clay soil which forms a hard crust and prevents 
thorough ventilation of the earth. 

We must also — and this is especially true in the case of 
town and city schools — avoid erecting buildings on made 
ground, because, where lots have been jBlled in by using them 
as dumping grounds, there is usually an excess of organic 
and corrupting materials. Where possible, if such a site must 
be used, the contaminating material should be scraped up 
and carted away. To cover up such refuse by sandy loam is 
of little value. In certain regions, such as the Fenway of 
Boston, for example, where the salt marshes of twenty years 
ago have been converted into solid ground and are now being 
utilized as sites for a remarkable gathering of educational 
institutions, such a carting away is entirely out of the ques- 
tion; and the only remedy is to abandon the site or else pro- 
tect the buildings so far as may be by the most carefully 
built drains and foundations. 

In rural schools it is especially important, in addition to 
the foregoing considerations, to select a location where 
the surrounding land may be successfully cultivated. The 
teacher who seeks to conduct classes in agriculture cannot 



10 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

hope to gain the cooperation of near-by farmers unless the 
school gardens are worth working over. 

Improving sites of old buildings. Old schools badly located 
may often be improved by a few simple measures. Bleak, 
windy hilltops may sometimes be rendered more comfort- 
able by building a surrounding wall, or planting sturdy ever- 
green trees so as to form a windbreak. 

Busses may be hired to carry children to and from school 
to outlying homes. 

In cities, zones of quiet may be established through 
cooperation with the police department, and sometimes a 
cobbled street may be repaved with asphalt or creosote 
blocks. 

Where the school grounds are inadequate, adjacent plots 
may sometimes be bought or hired; and school gardens have 
been successfully operated at some distance from the build- 
ing. Not infrequently a vacant lot will be temporarily do- 
nated for school purposes. 

The lighting problem is less easily handled. Where ob- 
structions are on one side only, it is sometimes possible to 
increase the number of windows on the opposite side, and 
one-story schools are frequently provided with skylights. 
Prism glass is frequently recommended. Artificial lighting 
during regular school hours is not desirable, and where the 
natural illumination remains insufficient the building should 
be abandoned for school purposes. 

Where an old school shows the effects of ground damp and 
ground air, it is sometimes possible to carry away the ground 
water by means of drains outside the building and thus 
somewhat retard the process of organic decomposition. 
Occasionally the outer part of the foundation walls may be 
rendered impervious to water by coating with hot tar below 
the earth line. Swamps may sometimes be drained, and 
stagnant pools given an outlet without exorbitant expense. 




^^' 



■ A 11,1,1 III I 

li 111 111 it 
f •■rr^Hiffffl 






Fig. 2. Three Generations of School Buildings 
San Francisco, California 

(o) The first schoolhouse in the city. Erected on the plaza in 1847 
(6) Type of grammar-school buildings of the seventies. Wood; capac- 
ity, one thousand pupils; cost, $30,000 

(c) The Sarah B. Cooper School. Built in 1914-15, at a cost of $103,112 




Fig. 3. Three Generations of a School Building 

East Orange, New Jersey 
(a) First Franklin School, 20x34 feet. Built in 1825; cost, $233.91 
(6) Second Franklin School. Built in 1873; cost, $10,304.87 
(c) Third Franklin School. Built in 1886-1914; cost, $107,442 



CHOOSING THE SCHOOL SITE 11 

To summarize : In deciding what constitutes a satisfactory 
school site, we shall often find it helpful to think of plots of 
land as being of equal value in every other particular, and 
then weighing the one against the other with reference to 
the point in question. For example, other things being equal, 
that site is preferable which is more centrally located. So 
we may also say: Other things being equal, that site is pre- 
ferable which — 

is more likely to fit future needs; 

is more accessible to the public highway; 

is located on the more quiet street; 

is more free from noise; 

is more free from dust; 

is more free from unpleasant odors; 

is more free from immoral or disturbing influences; 

is less likely to be hemmed in by surrounding buildings; 

is more remote from dangerous street or railroad crossings; 

has the larger area; 

receives more sunlight; 

is more protected from winds; 

is on higher ground; 

is not on hilltop or hillside; 

has the more permeable soil; 

has less decaying organic matter in the soil; 

has the dryer soil; 

is more easily cultivated. 

QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 

1. Outline in detail a method for using census figures to guide building 
policy. 

2. Make a survey of the school buildings of your town. Suppose they 
all were to be rebuilt, what would be the best sites for them? Why? 
How could their present sites be improved? 

3. Who should be consulted in selecting the school site? 

4. Suppose that only one site is available. What treatment should be 
given the soil if it is of clay? Of sand? Swampy? 



12 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

5. How can the school board know what kind of soil underlies a pro- 
posed site? 

6. Make a plan showing the site of an eight-room elementary school 
building. Indicate points of the compass, size and shape of plot, 
location of building, location and number of trees, gardens, play- 
grounds, and other desirable features. 

7. Suppose that a side hill is the only site available, what is the desirable 
treatment? 

SELECTED REFERENCES 

Ayres, Leonard P., and May. School Buildings and Equipment. Cleveland 
Education Survey. (1916.) Russell Sage Foundation. 

Discusses relation of school census to building policy. 
Barnard, Henry. School Architecture (various dates). 

Of historical interest. Contains quotations from school reports. 

Cook, William A. Schoolhouse Sanitation. United States Bureau of Edu- 
cation, Bulletin no. 21. (1915). 

Study of laws and regulations governing the hygiene and sanitation of schoolhouses. 

Cubberley, E. P. School Organization and Administration. World Book 
Company (1916), chap. v. 
Value of a school census in locating new school buildings. 

Dresslar, Fletcher B. American Schoolhouses. United States Bureau of 
Education, Bulletin no. 5. (1910.) 

Good discussion of ground air and ground water. 

Dresslar, Fletcher B. School Hygiene. The Macmillan Company (lOlS), 
chap. III. 

Good discussion of sites. 

Whipple, Guy Montrose. Questions in School Hygiene. Cornell Study 
Bulletins for Teachers (C. W. Bardeen, Publisher, Syracuse, N.Y., 
1909), Section A. 
List of questions to be answered by student of education on school site. 



CHAPTER II 

THE SCHOOL BUILDING 

The architect. The most important part of a school build- 
ing is the planning which precedes it. During the early part 
of the century drawing up specifications for a new school- 
house frequently fell to the lot of the school board, the 
teacher, the local carpenter, or persons who spoke of them- 
selves as "amateurs in architecture.'* To-day there are 
firms and individual architects who have gained national 
reputations in the field, and who devote all of their time to 
school planning. School boards in many of the larger cities 
employ one or more architects, on a full-time basis, because 
they have found that expert service is in the long run a wise 
investment. No matter whether the community in question 
be city, town, or country, the services of an architect with 
long experience in school work should be utilized before 
building operations are undertaken. 

In cities, where school buildings are necessarily large and 
complicated, it is best either to secure the permanent serv- 
ices of a well-qualified architect who will devote all his time 
to local problems, or to put the matter into the hands of one 
of several architectural firms which have made schoolhouse 
planning their specialty. Smaller towns will do well either 
to consult one of these firms, or to secure plans of buildings 
already erected under the direction of well-qualified archi- 
tects. The local architect, no matter how clever, should not 
be hired to superintend the erection of the new school build- 
ing until he has given positive evidence of understanding 
this highly specialized branch of his subject. 



14 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

Town and rural communities should take advantage of 
the assistance offered by many State departments of educa- 
tion and by the Federal Bureau of Education at Washington. 
Plans for rural and consolidated schools have been drawn 
by some of the most skillful architects in the United States, 
and may be secured either entirely free or for a small sum. 
The Bureau also gladly furnishes criticism and suggestion 
on proposed plans. Such works as F. B. Dresslar's American 
Schoolhouses and Rural Schoolhouses and Grounds, both pub- 
lished as bulletins by the United States Bureau of Educa- 
tion, contain plans and suggestions which not only give help 
to boards planning to build, but also serve as textbooks for 
boards and teachers who are seeking to learn more about 
the problems involved in schoolhouse construction. The 
American School Board Journal has a special division for 
new buildings, and the educational authorities of several 
States have prepared bulletins showing plans and specifica- 
tions. No matter how poor a communitj^ may be, it has no 
excuse for building a badly planned schoolhouse. 

The plan. The plan chosen should provide for a building, 
beautiful in outline, simple to construct, adequate for edu- 
cational purposes, and, in regions where the population is 
steadily increasing, so designed that new portions can be 
added without impairing the utility or beauty of the old. 
The American public is slowly being convinced that towers, 
wooden scroll-work, pointed windows, and diamond panes 
are not only ugly, but evidences of poor taste as well. Archi- 
tectural atrocities are still to be found newly risen on every 
hand, but their number is decreasing, and reputable firms 
no longer bear the responsibility for them. It is curiously 
true that beauty of outline and economy of money outlay 
are in positive correlation. Given the same quality of mate- 
rial and workmanship, the same equipment of rooms and 
windows, and it will be found that the building with plain 



THE SCHOOL BUILDING 15 

lines will actually cost less in dollars and cents than its more 
pretentious and less artistic rival. 

Before the actual lay-out of rooms can be made, it is neces- 
sary to decide in general what sort of a building is to be 
erected. Is it to be one unit in a building group arranged on 
the cottage plan, or one large building complete in itself.? 
Is it to be several stories in height, or shall the new plan be 
adopted of one-story buildings lighted from above? Is the 
building to be of non-fireproof, semi-fireproof, or entirely 
fireproof construction? Shall the outer walls be of wood, 
brick, stone, or concrete? The answer to all these questions 
will necessarily depend upon where the building is to be 
located, the amount of money available for building pur- 
poses, and the especial use to which the building is to be put. 

Before the plans can be subjected to intelligent criticism, 
it is necessary that the school authorities shall have made 
a careful study of the general problems of school hygiene. 
Before the building committee can properly act upon recom- 
mendations for or against the finished plan, its members 
must be familiar with the modern standards of lighting, 
heating, ventilating, sanitation, fire protection, arrange- 
ment of classrooms, and the like. They should study the 
educational magazines in order to see what buildings are 
being erected in other places, and should visit personally 
some of the newest and most interesting buildings in the 
hope of getting suggestions for their own. Since the archi- 
tecture of schoolhouses is one of the most rapidly changing 
fields, it is important that superintendent and school board 
members make special efforts to keep abreast of the times. 
When one realizes that flat-roofed buildings with isolated 
stairways, unilateral lighting, and first-floor auditoriums 
were being constructed by leading architects twenty years 
ago, one feels a distinct shock to discover that at the present 
time there are in the process of erection hundreds of school 



\ 



16 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

buildings of the old box-like type in which many of us were 
housed when we were children. 

In communities where the population is growing, it is 
essential to see to it that the plan of the new schoolhouse 
allows for the building of future extensions. One of the 
principal reasons why the old -type square school buildings 
have given way to the newer L, T, H, and U buildings is, 
that with the former types an added wing usually cut off 
light from classrooms in the older part. Modern buildings 
are planned in such a way that one or two new wings may 
be added without interfering with either the utility or exter- 
nal appearance of the building. 

Plans should be studied also from the point of view of 
"wider use" or community service. The "socialized school- 
house," as it is frequently called, is so arranged that its 
auditorium, library, toilets, and gymnasiums can be cut off 
from the rest of the building and opened to the public with- 
out allowing access to classrooms or offices. 

Apportionment of space. An exceedingly interesting piece 
of work is now being carried on by the "Committee on 
Standardization of Schoolhouse Design and Construction 
of the Department of School Administration of the National 
Education Association." Frank Irving Cooper, of Boston, 
one of the leading school architects in the United States, is 
chairman of this committee, and the other four members are 
all men who have become prominent in the fields of school 
architecture, hygiene, and administration. The committee is 
making a careful study of plans for modern school buildings, 
and aims eventually to publish a report, first, to show what 
are the standards generally accepted for schoolhouse con- 
struction, and second, to determine what plans for school 
buildings should include and what relative proportion of the 
total cubic contents and floor areas should be set aside for 
each specified use. That is, the committee hopes to be able 



THE SCHOOL BUILDING 17 

to furnish suggestions whereby people who are not trained 
architects may be able to judge the efficiency and economy 
of space utilization in plans submitted to them. 

In its preliminary bulletin the committee points out the 
amazing differences in cost between buildings in different 
cities which apparently are planned to accommodate the 
same number of children, to furnish the same type of facili- 
ties, and to be erected of the same materials. It also points 
out that there is at present no general agreement concerning 
the number and sizes of rooms required in elementary or 
high-school buildings. Plans differ widely even where prac- 
tically the same school programs are being carried on. 
Through careful study and analysis the committee hopes to 
be able, in the near future, to present standards based on 
the best present existing practice. 

Unit plans. The question of the correct apportionment of 
space has within the past several years led to the drawing-up 
of many different schemes for showing what rooms should 
be included in school buildings, and relatively how much 
space should be given to each. For example, the Department 
of Buildings of the city school system of Pittsburgh, Penn- 
sylvania, publishes a very interesting booklet entitled Pro- 
gram and Details of Construction and Equipment for Grade 
Schools, for the instruction of architects who wish to sub- 
mit plans. The regular classroom is taken as the unit of 
space. The booklet lists all the rooms which must be in- 
cluded in the school, together with certain other rooms 
which, while not essential, are desired. The list is shown 
on page 18. 

An exceedingly interesting development of the unit plan 
is that designed by Mr. W. R. McCornack, architect for 
the Cleveland school system. Mr. McCornack uses the 
classroom as his unit, and plans his building much on the 
idea of the sectional bookcase or filing cabinet. Across one 



18 



Household 
economy 



Industrial 
training 



HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

16 classrooms 

1 ungraded room 

1 kindergarten room 
1 kindergarten wardrobe 
1 kindergarten toilet 
1 kindergarten workroom 

'1 sewing-room 
1 wardrobe and locker-room 
1 fitting-room 
1 model bedroom (desired) , 

1 demonstration room 

1 domestic-science room 
1 wardrobe and locker-room 
1 pantry 
.1 model dining-room (desired) 

'1 bench-room 
1 wardrobe and locker-room 
1 storage-room 

1 demonstration-room 

1 drafting-room 

1 wardrobe and locker-room 
J storage-room 

2 voting-rooms 

1 general office 

1 private office 

1 book storeroom 

1 physician's room 

1 teachers' room 

1 janitor's supply-room 



16 units 

I unit 

li units 

Ij units 
5 unit 
ll units 

-j I5 units 
I unit 
1 unit 

1 unit 

2 units 



1 assembly-room (desired) — 700 seating capacity 

2 paved play-yards, each 11,000 square feet 

. f Which it is desired should have areas 

1 girls play-room ^ ^^^.^ ^ j ^^ ^^^^ classrooms or greater 

^b«y«Pl^y-^«°^i areas if available 



THE SCHOOL BUILDING 19 

end of the classroom is the wardrobe, with accommodations 
for eighty pupils, so that the room may be used by two 
alternating platoons, should the double platoon plan of 
organization be adopted. By removing the wardrobe parti- 
tion the room becomes standard size for manual training, 
cooking, or other similar classes. Two such rooms, with the 
second divided in half, furnish a kindergarten and kinder- 
garten workroom. Four rooms in sets of two each may be 
turned into small gymnasiums for separate classes of boys 
and girls. Four rooms together are equal in size to an audi- 
torium. 

In a building constructed in this way all supports are 
above one another running straight from foundation to roof. 
Pipes for plumbing and vacuum cleaning are carried in 
vertical lines, practically without a bend. Materials may be 
purchased in standard lengths, and in lots large enough to 
supply several buildings at once. Alterations to allow for 
administrative changes can be made with ease and rapid- 
ity. The unit plan, as Mr. McCornack has worked it 
out, promises to reduce building costs and provide a much 
more satisfactory type of building than most of those now 
in use. 

Height of building. Ideally the school building should 
never be more than two stories high. Actually, in a few of 
the larger cities, land is so expensive that large areas cannot 
be secured for school purposes. In such cases the tall build- 
ing, equipped with elevators, with its playgrounds on the 
roof, seems to be an unfortunate necessity. Probably even 
in such cities the time will come when public schools will be 
built in the suburbs, with plenty of open spaces, and chil- 
dren will be transported to and from the city at public 
expense. Such a plan is sure to meet with opposition from 
parents and teachers at first, but, as in the case of open-air 
schools, medical inspection, and the hke, such opposition 



20 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

will gradually break down as the plan is tried and proves 
to be of value. 

In cities where land values are not exorbitant, nothing 
over two stories should be erected. Tall buildings mean ex- 
cessive climbing of stairs for children and teachers. Where 
the toilets are located in the basement such climbing becomes 
an additional burden. In addition, unless the school is com- 
pletely fireproof, the hazard of fire and panic is considerably 
more than doubled for every additional story. If a building 
is absolutely fireproof, — which means steel and concrete 
construction, metal doors, window-sills, and trim, non-in- 
flammable floor coverings, and metal furniture, — and is 
supplied with thoroughly adequate and efficient elevator 
service, it may properly be as high as the ordinary office 
building; but there are very few schools in the country 
which even approach this standard. 

Orientation. The building should be placed on the land in 
such a way that all its classrooms will receive light either 
from the east or the west. North light is not desirable be- 
cause, although it is easy and pleasant to work by, windows 
facing in that direction never receive direct sunlight. It 
has been shown by recent experiments that contagious dis- 
eases are not spread by germs flying like small insects 
through the air, but by direct carriers — flies, mosquitoes, 
food, drink, particles of clothing, or mucus. Colds seem to 
be spread among groups of people through minute drops of 
mucus which are sprayed into the air when the sufferer 
coughs or sneezes. If such contagion is to be avoided the 
safest preventive measure is to flood with sunshine every 
corner of the rooms where people gather, and so render these 
drops of mucus sterile. Every classroom should be flooded 
with sunshine once every day. 

South rooms, on the other hand, are undesirable because 
they are apt to receive direct sunlight all day long, which 



THE SCHOOL BUILDING 21 

makes rooms uncomfortably hot in summer and renders the 
Hghting problem difficult. Rooms facing east receive the 
morning sun, but are relieved of its direct rays in the after- 
noon. Rooms facing west receive indirect light in the 
morning and direct light in the afternoon. Either east or 
west lighting is excellent for schoolrooms, although perhaps 
the east is slightly preferable. Many architects recommend 
placing the school building so that its sides face halfway 
between the points of the compass. 

Foundations. From the point of view of school hygiene, 
few things are more important than the method of building 
the foundation for a sehool building. An insufficient or im- 
properly built foundation is apt, through capillary attrac- 
tion, to produce unhygienic conditions in the schoolroom. 
Ground damp creeps through the walls and introduces cold, 
clammy air and the peculiar odor so often connected with 
the cellar of the country farmhouse. Blackboards sweat and 
buckle, plaster falls, floors and wooden supports rot and 
gradually fall apart. Dr. Dresslar, in his American School- 
houses, tells of a brick building built on ground where the 
ground water line was kept at about six feet from the surface 
by the irrigation of the surrounding country. The founda- 
tion walls were constructed of unglazed brick, and no damp 
proofing had been used. In six years, he says, and almost 
before the danger was discovered, the timbers supporting 
the floors had so decayed that the whole of the lower floor 
was ready to drop into the basement. The building was con- 
demned, and had to be reconstructed at large expense. 

Dresslar recommends concrete foundations, with wide 
footings. The outside of the foundation wall below the sur- 
face should be coated with boiling tar or asphaltum before 
the excavation is filled. A short distance above the surface 
there should be embedded in the walls a layer of hard 
asphaltum or a thin layer of slate set in rich fine cement 



22 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

mortar. Even a layer of tarred paper on top of the wall will 
be of service for several years. Perhaps the best method of 
damp-proofing foundations is to insert within the wall a 
thin layer of 1 to 1 cement. 

A very effective, although considerably more expensive, 
method of protecting against ground water and ground 
damp is to build a four-inch wall of brick all around, with a 
one-inch space between it and the main foundation wall, 
and then to fill the intervening space with a one-inch vertical 
layer of tar. A one-inch layer of tar, covered with tar paper, 
is frequently placed beneath the concrete step and under- 
neath the basement floor. While a simple outer coating of 
tar with a damp-proof layer within the wall above the grade 
line will usually be suflScient for dry locations, the more 
elaborate method just described should be employed wher- 
ever the ground is wet. 

Unless the schoolhouse has been located on the top of a 
hill, with land sloping away in all directions, — and this is 
rarely a wise location, — it is essential that a ground drain 
be built five or six feet outside the foundation walls and 
below the level of the foundation base. This drain should be 
constructed of large earthen tiles, well burned, such as are 
commonly used for draining land. Joints should be left 
slightly open at the under side, and covered for some inches 
with coarse gravel or broken stone in order to prevent loose 
earth from entering and clogging the drain. The drain may 
either come to the surface at a point well away from the 
building, where the water cannot flow back, or end in a 
trap. 

Such a ground drain is simple in construction, so that 
it can be laid by the ordinary workman. It costs very little, 
and will frequently prevent serious trouble later. 

All buildings should be supplied with strong, durable 
eaves gutters and drain pipes from the roof, to prevent 



THE SCHOOL BUILDING 23 

water dripping off the eaves from soaking into the ground 
or drenching the upper part of the foundation walls. Such 
pipes should be large and numerous enough to care for all 
the roof drainage. Care should be taken to prevent clogging 
at the top by leaves or twigs. The down pipes should empty 
into the earthen drains outside the foundation walls through 
cemented sewer tile, and the water be carried off along 
with the ground water. 

Old buildings with improperly constructed foundations 
offer a peculiarly difficult problem. In some cases it is possi- 
ble to expose the foundation wall below the grade line, coat 
it with tar or asphaltum, and build a drain below the founda- 
tion level. Extra coating of cement on the inside is usually 
of some slight value. Frequently, however, a poorly con- 
structed foundation cannot be remedied, and the building 
must either be used in spite of dangerously unhygienic 
conditions or else be abandoned. 

Basements. It is desirable that all schools be constructed 
with basements. This is the common practice in cities, but 
rural districts have usually felt that a cellar or basement was 
an unnecessary added expense. As a matter of fact, if foun- 
dations have been laid of such a nature that the building is 
properly protected from ground damp, the added expense 
of excavating cellar space and laying a floor of asphaltum 
or cement, based on tar, is inconsiderable when compared 
with the increased usefulness of the building so equipped. 
Basements are the best places for heating and ventilating 
plants. In spite of certain State laws which assume the con- 
trary, heat can be carried to classrooms more economically 
from the basement than from points outside the building, 
and if proper precautions are taken the fire hazard is re- 
moved. In rural districts a furnace in the basement furnishes 
more satisfactory heat than a jacketed stove within the 
gchoolroom; and basement space may well be used for an 



24 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

acetylene lighting plant, small gasoline pump, and other 
equipment. 

A basement provides the best place for indoor playrooms, 
lavatories, shower baths, etc. It gives ample space for the 
necessary plumbing, and yet makes these facilities easily 
accessible to the pupils within the building. Special rooms 
for manual training, domestic science, etc., can frequently 
be located in the basement, and for rural schools this 
j is often the cheapest way satisfactorily to provide such 
equipment. 

It is generally the custom to place the main toilet-rooms 
in the basement, together with smaller rooms on each floor. 
From the hygienic point of view this is a desirable custom, 
because, if care is used in planning the basement and in- 
stalling the apparatus, it is possible to provide for thorough 
sanitation by connection with the heating and ventilating 
plant. 

Basements should be at least ten feet high, with seven 
feet above the grade line. If the ceilings are any lower there 
will be a tendency to use air ducts which are too small and 
to bend them at acute angles. This will result in continued 
trouble with the heating and ventilating plant. 

A frequent error in planning basements is to provide too 
few windows. Consequently toilet-rooms, corridors, baths, 
etc., are poorly lighted; and unhygienic conditions are fre- 
quently established which are difl&cult to remedy. Every 
effort should be made to flood basement rooms with abun- 
dant sunshine. Where there are sufiicient funds it is well to 
line the walls with glazed brick or tile, in light colors. This 
surface will not take pencil marks easily, is quickly cleaned, 
and reflects light. 

In old buildings it is frequently possible to add one or more 
windows in the basement wall without excessive cost. The 
floor of the basement may sometimes be lowered, but, as in 



THE SCHOOL BUILDING «5 

the older buildings basements are frequently already too 
far below the grade line, deepening them still further is 
rarely advisable. Damp floors may frequently be rendered 
impervious to water by adding a thin layer of asphalt um. 
Solid walls may sometimes be replaced by piers supporting 
heavy iron cross-beams, or by arches made of brick or con- 
crete, and more space and light may be thus provided. 
Occasionally better lighting may be secured by digging back 
the earth for three or four feet outside the foundation wall, 
and deepening the windows. Painting or whitewashing the 
inner walls will help in utilizing all the light which is allowed 
to enter. When structural changes are made the work should 
be under the direction of an experienced person, and care 
should be taken not to weaken the supports of the super- 
structure. 

Roofs. The flat roof is rapidly coming into favor, and has 
shown itself of such value that for all larger buildings, at 
least, it should be adopted unless excellent reasons can be 
furnished in favor of the older pitched roof. The pitched 
roof seems to have originated because of the necessity for 
getting rid of huge masses of snow, which otherwise would 
have caused the roof timbers to give way. Under present 
methods of construction, however, there are very few places 
in the United States where a flat roof would not be strong 
enough to bear the weight of snow likely to fall upon it. 
Pitched roofs are expensive to build. Attics are usually of 
little use except as storerooms, and their large, unbroken 
spaces are a constant fire menace. The flat roof can be built 
more economically, it wastes less space, can often be utilized 
as an outdoor playground or gymnasium, and is attractive 
in appearance. The argument that pitched roofs are neces- 
sary in order to protect the rooms below from excessive heat 
is overcome by a study of the architecture in tropical coim- 
tries, where pitched roofs are practically unknown. From 



26 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

the point of view of school hygiene the flat roof has much 
to recommend it. 

Floors and floor coverings. All floors should be fireproof, 
soundproof, and impervious to draughts. Wooden floors 
should be double, the lower layer being made of rough 
boards, rather narrow, well seasoned, and set together as 
closely as may be. They should be laid diagonally upon 
the floor joists, and covered with a thick layer of deadening 
material. The ground floor should not only deaden sound, 
but also exclude damp air rising from the basement. Tarred 
paper keeps out cellar air, but easily catches fire. Asbestos 
board, building felt, and mineral wool are all slow to burn, 
impermeable, and good sound-deadeners. In buildings of 
fireproof construction a layer of cement below the floor 
surface effectively deadens sound. 

For wooden floors a second layer of boards is laid above 
the thick layer of deadening material. The best material 
for the upper boards is oak, maple probably ranks next, 
and hard pine ranks third in desirability. Soft pine should 
never be used because it is soft, highly inflammable, splin- 
ters readily, catches and holds dirt, and wears out very 
rapidly. Surface boards should be not more than two and 
a half inches wide, straight grain, free from pitch, knot-holes, 
or other defects, and well grooved so that they fit closely 
together. Care should be taken that not a board is used 
which shows a defect, because once laid it is sure to cause 
trouble by slivering, holding dirt, cracking or drawing apart 
from its fellows, staining, and the like. Careless work in 
laying floors is frequently responsible for unhygienic condi- 
tions later. Blind nailing is usually recommended, but ordi- 
nary nailing will prove satisfactory if carefully done. After 
floors are laid they should be smoothed to an even surface, 
the pores of the wood should be filled with hot linseed oil 
well rubbed in, and after thorough drymg the whole surface 



THE SCHOOL BUILDING 27 

should be waxed. Floors laid in this manner will last for 
years, and are easily cleaned. 

There are many prepared floor coverings which are now 
being subjected to experiment, such as cork, sawdust, rub- 
ber, fiber, and other materials in varied combinations. One 
of the most satisfactory floor coverings for rooms, such as 
kindergartens, special rooms, or classrooms, where movable 
furniture is used, is a good quality of battleship linoleum, 
carefully laid and treated with a good preservative. This is 
rather expensive, but when properly prepared furnishes a 
smooth surface, pleasant in color, and easily cleaned. It is 
soundproof, and a poor conductor of heat. Where children 
are allowed to work seated on the floor linoleum is an excel- 
lent covering. 

The floors of corridors and basements should be of some 
material which can readily be cleaned. Well-laid wooden 
floors carefully oiled are attractive in appearance, but unless 
the oil is thin and well rubbed in they quickly show foot- 
marks and require constant cleaning. Wooden floors which 
are cleaned by scrubbing are highly unsatisfactory, and 
should never be used for school corridors. Asphalt um makes 
a good smooth surface, is fireproof, noise-deadening, and 
impervious to water. It is rather dark, and not particularly 
ornamental in appearance, but gives excellent service. 
Cement has most of the satisfactory elements of asphaltum, 
except that it is somewhat slower in drying after having been 
washed, and the surface gives off a fine dust when much 
used. One of the most popular forms of floor covering for 
corridors is made by embedding small pieces of marble in 
cement. These "terrazzo" floors, so called, furnish a water- 
proof surface, are light-colored and attractive. 

The importance of well-constructed double floors is fre- 
quently unappreciated by people in country districts. Of 
the one hundred and nine one-teacher rural schools in New 



28 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Vermont, and Maryland 
studied, in 1913, by the American Medical Association and 
the National Council of Education, over one third had floors 
consisting of single boards laid on wooden joists, through 
which ground air, ground damp, and strong cold draughts 
poured in around the feet of teacher and children. Of the 
entire one hundred and nine, only one had floors lined with 
deadening material. In studying the reports of medical in- 
spection, students are frequently shocked to find that the 
city child is healthier and stronger than his country brother. 
Rural children are exposed constantly to dangers from which 
city children are protected. It is probably true that much 
of the tuberculosis, catarrh, pneumonia, and deafness of 
country people has been caused or accelerated by years of 
living in rooms with cold, draughty floors. The cost of pro- 
viding adequate protection against this very real peril is 
small compared with the loss of physical efficiency which is 
Iil<:ely to result from its neglect. 

Walls. School walls should be easily cleaned and of smooth 
surface, so that they will not catch dust. Plaster, wood 
pulp, cement, tile, terrazzo, or brick may all be used as wall 
surface, providing the cracks are eliminated, the whole pol-^ 
ished to secure a smooth facing, and paint or stain applied 
so that walls are given the proper color. Wood gives a good 
effect if carefully set, but care must be taken to avoid cracks 
and panels, and to eliminate projections which would be 
likely to catch dust. Dark wood is attractive in appearance, 
but should not be used above the lower line of the black- 
board, because it absorbs light. Various types of composi- 
tion board are rapidly coming into use and are especially 
appropriate in the less expensive types of rural schoolhouses. 
Burlap, tapestry, or wall-paper should not be used for 
schoolroom walls, because the first two catch dust, and all 
are difficult to clean. No matter what material is used, care 



THE SCHOOL BUILDING 29 

should be taken to procure a dull rather than a glazed finish, 
in order that reflections may not interfere with the general 
lighting scheme. 

Doors. The doors of the schoolroom should be without 
moulding or panels, and should depend for their beauty upon 
the grain of wood or the sheen of metal. Everything should 
be eliminated which in any way catches dust. The carpet 
strip at the entrance is entirely unnecessary if care is taken 
in hanging the door. It catches little piles of dust during 
sweeping, and should be done away with. Transoms above 
the door were originally intended to aid in securing good 
ventilation. With modern plenum systems the transom is 
apt to make trouble by causing extra draughts; and, even 
with systems of window ventilation, it seems undesirable to 
admit air from the central hallway. Transoms are of more 
hindrance than help in ventilating. They are often out of 
order, and usually shockingly dirty. Dust gathers on the 
slanted surface and cannot be removed by the ordinary 
broom. 

Transoms, panels, and carpet strips are all remnants of an 
earlier and less hygienic age; and should be discarded. 

QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 

1. Draw a plan of an old-tj^pe one-room rural-school building, with 
windows on three sides, stove in center, platform at front, with an 
entrance on each side of it leading into front hall. Show what changes 
should be made to improve the building, and calculate approximate 
expense. 

2. What, if any, difference should be made between the orientation of 
school buildings where there is a one-session day and of those where 
there is a two-session day? Between high, grammar, primary, and 
kindergarten buildings.-^ 

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of erecting school build- 
ings with the corners facing the four cardinal points of the compass? 

4. Under what circumstances is it justifiable to build a rural school on 
wooden piles, without cellar or foundation walls? 

5. Which is better, in cases of overcrowded schools, to place children 



so HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

in basement rooms, attic rooms, portable buildings, or increase the 
size of classes in regular classrooms ? What is usually done, and why? 

6. When an addition is to be made to an old-type school, with two-sided 
lighting, pitched roof, etc., how far should the external architecture 
of the new building correspond with that of the old? 

7. Compare the relative advantages of cork, rubber, and linoleum as 
floor coverings. 

8. Which is better for your community, a group of small buildings, or 
one large one? Why? 

SELECTED REFERENCES 

American School Board Journal. Bl-uce Publishing Company, Milwaukee, 
Wisconsin. 

Reproduces plans of buildings now being erected. Full of valuable suggestiona. 
Bruce, W. G. School Architecture. (Milwaukee, 1910.) 

Excellent little handbook, although somewhat out of date in a few particulars. 

Dresslar, Fletcher B. American Schoolhouses. United States Bureau of 
Education, Bulletin no. 5. (1910.) 

Especially useful in showing different plans and discussing their relative advantages. 

Dresslar, Fletcher B. School Hygiene. The Macmillan Company, New 
York. (1913.) 
Valuable reference book. 
Minneapolis, Minnesota, Board of Education. A Million a Year. (1916.) 

A five-year building program, including a discussion of policies concerning junior high 
schools, extending the normal capacity of the school plant, and the establishment of 
normal distances for the location of school buildings. 

Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. The Macmillan Company, New 
York. (1911-13.) 

One of the most useful reference books for the student of education. Contains articles 
of value on immensely wide variety of subjects, and furnishes a brief but carefully 
selected bibliography with each. 

N.E.A. Committee on Standardization of Schoolhouse Design and Con- 
struction. Frank Irving Cooper, Cornhill, Boston, Chairman. 

Reports to be published. Will probably be of considerable assistance to schoolmen 
who face the building problem. 

See also various State laws, and publications of State and local school 
authorities concerning building requirements. 



CHAPTER III 

ROOMS IN THE SCHOOL BUILDING 

Classroom dimensions. The traditional classroom con- 
templates forty-eight children, in six rows, eight in a row, 
sitting one behind the other, silent and immovable, reciting 
occasionally, but spending much of their time in listening 
to the teacher talk. We are gradually changing our attitude 
toward schooling of this type. In the school of the future 
children will be busy doing things, not hearing about them. 
Fixed desks will disappear, and the classroom will become 
a workshop. Children will work in groups, moving actively 
about, and cooperation and communication will be culti- 
vated as virtues instead of being repressed as cardinal sins 
of childhood. When that time comes, our architectural 
standards will undergo profound changes. Perhaps then uni- 
lateral lighting will be no longer necessary; classrooms may 
grow very much larger — or smaller; desks and chairs may 
be of many different kinds within the one room; blackboards 
may conceivably disappear. It is impossible for us to predict 
what changes will come, but we may be sure that schools 
will be very different from the best of those we now are 
building. 

So long, however, as the child remains assigned to the 
traditional passivity of the classroom, the architect must 
provide him with surroundings as comfortable and hygienic 
as possible. Rooms must be small enough so that it will not 
be easy to crowd in too many children. The length of the 
room must be determined by the distance at which children 
in the back rows can read writing on the blackboard, and can 
hear and be heard. Width must depend upon the amount 



32 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

of light which children farthest from the windows receive; 
the height of the ceiling must be that which provides for the 
best lighting and ventilation, while at the same time neces- 
sitating the least exertion in climbing stairs. 

It is generally accepted as a standard that each child 
should have from eighteen to twenty square feet of floor 
space, and about two hundred and fifty cubic feet of air 
space. Various experiments with sight and hearing have 
placed twenty-nine feet as about the greatest distance at 
which letters one and a half inches high can be comfortably 
read; and thirty feet as the greatest distance within which 
the ordinary speaking voice can be easily and accurately 
understood. About twenty-nine feet, then, is the greatest 
distance at which any child should be seated from the black- 
board. Add three feet for an aisle behind the last row of 
seats, and the length of the room comes to thirty-two feet. 

The width of the room varies with the intensity of out- 
door lighting. Assuming that the room is lighted on one 
side only, the desk farthest from the window should have as 
a minimum three foot candles of illumination. In countries 
well toward the north, such as Canada, England, Scandi- 
navia, Holland, and parts of Germany, winter days are 
short, and the light of early morning and late afternoon is 
apt to be dull and weak. In such cases a room one and a half 
times as wide as it is high, with window space equal to one 
fourth the floor space, will be necessary in order to provide 
the desired amount of light at the more remote desks. In 
most parts of the United States a width not more than twice 
the height will give the same results. In the tropics, or on 
very high locations with low horizon lines, rooms even wider 
may be permitted. 

Unless the horizon line is very high or the light badly 
obstructed, rooms should not be over twelve and one half 
feet from floor to ceiling. German authorities usually recom- 



ROOMS IN THE SCHOOL BUILDING 33 

mend thirteen feet or more, probably because of the Hghting 
difficulty encountered in northern latitudes. In the United 
States for a room thirty-two feet long, twenty-four feet 
wide, and twelve and one half feet high, five windows three 
and a half feet wide, eight feet high, and coming within six 
inches of the ceiling, will usually furnish sufficient light. 

In crowded cities, even where the school authorities in- 
tend to assign no more than forty children to a teacher, it 
will frequently be found that old buildings, in which rooms 
are often twenty-eight feet wide or more, have actually 
desks and chairs provided for forty-eight instead of forty 
children. Because of their too generous dimensions the 
rooms do not look crowded, and it seems more economical 
and kinder to the children to make room for overflow classes 
by adding a few extra places than to erect portable buildings 
or use basement rooms. So long as extra floor space is avail- 
able, additional seats will be installed. It is a wise plan to 
make the rooms in new buildings so narrow that any num- 
ber beyond forty will not be admitted without obvious 
crowding. 

High ceilings. Schoolhouses in this country were fre- 
quently very low, with small windows and no means of 
ventilation. As a reaction against such conditions the pe- 
riod after the Civil War produced buildings with ceilings not 
infrequently fifteen or sixteen feet high. At that time 
emphasis was placed upon the number of cubic feet of air 
the schoolroom held, rather than upon the frequency with 
which it was changed. Naturally, if air was thought of as 
being stationary, with only an occasional clearing, it was 
important to provide as much space as possible for every 
child. Modern ventilation demands a constantly changing 
current of air. If air changes frequently enough the actual 
cubic content of the room is held to be of comparatively 
little importance. In the older buildings windows were fre- 



S4 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

quently as much as two, three, or four feet below the ceiling, 
and the space above was filled with a mass of warm dead air 
which had risen from the space below and remained un- 
changed. 

In schools depending upon window ventilation, where the 
windows come to within six inches of the ceiling, added space 
may be of value. The added height of the wall increases 
somewhat the pressure of cold air from without upon the 
warm air of the schoolroom, and thus quickens the air 
current. This is an advantage only where the teacher is 
skilled in operating the windows; and as teachers usually 
are too busy or forgetful to pay much attention to frequent 
ventilation, the advisability of installing higher ceilings is 
questionable. Moreover, every foot added to the ceiling 
height increases the height of the stairway. If the reader 
will visit in succession several of the old-type tall school 
buildings, and inspect them from attic to basement, he will 
soon appreciate the significance of the added foot. The 
strain of such stair-climbing upon adolescent girls is fre- 
quently harmful. 

Avoiding unnecessary height is important for financial 
as well as hygienic reasons. Imagine a small building with 
say three thousand square feet of floor space, twenty -five 
feet high, costing twenty cents a cubic foot. The total 
cost of the building will be $15,000. Now, if the height of 
each classroom is increased by one foot, two feet are added 
to the total height, and six thousand cubic feet to the cubic 
contents; so that instead of costing $15,000 the building 
costs $16,200. That is, the total building cost has been in- 
creased by about nine per cent. 

For elementary schools, then, the generally accepted 
standard for regular schoolrooms is twenty -four or twenty- 
five feet wide, thirty -two feet long, and twelve and one half 
feet high. It may occasionally be wise to adopt other meas- 



ROOMS IN THE SCHOOL BUILDING 35 

urements, but the reasons for any departure from the fig- 
ures here given should be carefully weighed. If forty chil- 
dren occupy such a standard room, each will receive about 
nineteen square feet of floor space and two hundred and 
forty cubic feet of air space. This cubiture is slightly below 
the usual amount demanded, but with a good system for 
changing air and keeping it in motion the space per child 
will be found ample. 

In high schools where there are elective courses, and 
classes vary greatly in size, it is well to provide, in addition 
to regular classrooms of the dimensions just noted, a number 
of smaller rooms for groups of ten or fifteen students, and a 
few large rooms for lecture purposes. 

Wardrobes. It was not until after the close of the Civil 
War that city schools were regularly built with special space 
set aside for the hanging of outdoor garments. Even at the 
present day there are to be found many rural schools where 
no such provision has been made. If special coatrooms are 
built outside each classroom, the doors should open into the 
room instead of into the hall, because in this way the ward- 
robe remains under full control of the teacher. Frequently a 
screen is erected across the back or front of the room, faced 
with blackboard on the outer side and fixtures on the side next 
the wall. A new method now being widely used, and very 
economical of floor space, is the wardrobe sunk in the wall 
just deep enough to hold the necessary fixtures, but not deep 
enough to allow children to enter the aperture. The opening 
is closed by sliding panels. Individual metal lockers with 
patented locks are rapidly coming into favor, especially for 
high schools or systems where, through the double-platoon 
plan, two sets of children use one classroom. Lockers are 
usually placed in halls or basements. 

No matter what method is used for the disposal of wraps, 
care should be taken first to see that some system of special 



36 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

ventilation is installed so that the clothing is dried and aired 
without allowing foul odors to escape into the classroom. 
Secondly, a hook for hat and wraps, shelf for lunch-basket, 
box for shoes and rubbers, and stand for umbrella should be 
provided for each pupil, and arranged in such a way that 
each garment is separated from those of other pupils. The 
spread of head lice or body vermin is frequently due to the 
careless manner in which hats or wraps are thrown in piles 
upon available chairs or window-sills; and it is frequently 
claimed that contagious diseases are carried in the same 
way. Individual lockers prevent all danger of this kind; but 
with proper fixtures the ordinary well-ventilated wardrobe 
may be rendered safe. 

Special classrooms. In every school building it is usually 
wise to plan certain rooms which shall be smaller than the 
regular classrooms, and shall be used either for small recita- 
tion groups or for ungraded classes of fifteen children or so. 
The equipment of these rooms should in general be the same 
as that provided for regular classrooms. Frequently mov- 
able furniture is desirable here, even when it is not installed 
in all the rooms throughout the building. Rooms where 
classes are to be held for deaf, crippled, or blind children 
should be arranged after consultation with specialists. In 
classrooms intended for blind or partially blind children, 
for example, it is sometimes desired that the glass in the 
windows be amber-tinted rather than clear. In classes for 
the deaf special lighting in the front of the room is necessary, 
in order that the children may watch the lip movements of 
the teacher. 

The sewing-room should be so planned that an abundance 
of clear light is available during school hours, without direct 
sunlight entering the room. Where sewing-rooms are to be 
used for only a short period each day by any given class, it is 
permissible to arrange them so that they will receive north 



ROOMS IN THE SCHOOL BUILDING 37 

light. Art studios should also be arranged so that their light 
will come from the north. 

All laboratories for cooking, chemistry, physics, and the 
like should be made thoroughly fireproof. Both ceiling and 
floor should be of fireproof material, and wherever possible 
separate exits leading directly outdoors should be provided 
for these rooms. In cooking-rooms special attention should 
be paid to the storage of fuel for the ranges. It is not unusual 
to discover piles of coal in the attic, under wooden beams 
which are entirely unprotected. Goal and wood which are 
needed for classroom purposes should be stored in metal- 
lined containers kept carefully closed. Special ventilating 
stacks, with exhaust fans or other means of rapidly changing 
the air, should be installed in all cooking and chemical 
laboratories, so that unpleasant odors may be removed 
speedily from the building. 

Manual-training rooms are usually situated in the base- 
ments of the newer schools. Care should be taken to supply 
them with a plentiful light. It is usually true that basement 
classrooms, even in new and carefully planned buildings, 
receive an insufficient amount of light. The ceiling, walls, 
and floor of the manual-training room should be made fire- 
proof, and a fireproof storeroom should be attached where 
lumber and inflammable materials may be kept. 

Kindergarten. The kindergarten should be situated on 
the first floor of the school building and should be provided 
with a separate entrance, so that kindergarten children may 
go directly outdoors without walking through the other 
parts of the building. The kindergarten should include one 
large room, and one or two smaller rooms adjoining. These 
rooms should be so situated as to receive direct sunlight 
during kindergarten hours. In the regular classrooms, where 
children are obliged to sit still, direct sunlight is undesirable 
because it shines directly into the eyes and causes eye- 



38 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

strain. In kindergartens, where little eye work is carried on 
and where children are allowed to move about freely, direct 
sunlight is probably desirable. 

A large cupboard should be installed in which kinder- 
garten materials may be stored. There should also be a sep- 
arate toilet and washroom as part of the kindergarten suite, 
so that the little children will not have to be sent downstairs 
to the regular toilets. The fixtures in the kindergarten toilet- 
room should be placed very near the floor, so that children 
can use them without assistance. The floor of the kinder- 
garten should be of some material which can be readily 
cleaned, and upon which children can sit without danger 
either of becoming chilled or soiling their clothing. Tile, 
terrazzo, or concrete are all undesirable because they are 
apt to chill the children. Battleship linoleum, carefully laid 
and treated with a preservative, is one of the most successful 
of floor coverings. Cork and rubber are also extensively 
used. 

Open-air classrooms. There is wide diversity in the loca- 
tion of open-air classes. Some are held on the roofs of build- 
ings, others on sheltered balconies, others in tents or shacks 
erected beside the main building, and still others in the 
regular classrooms with all the windows removed from their 
frames. Any one of these locations may be used successfully, 
providing certain precautions are taken. Where classes are 
situated on the roofs of city school buildings it is usually 
necessary to install elevator service in order to take the 
pupils up and down, because climbing several flights of stairs 
is not a desirable exercise for frail children. Open-air classes 
should have some sort of shelter provided which will keep 
the rain and snow from actually falling inside the classroom. 
Toilets and washrooms, with a plentiful supply of soap and 
hot water, should be on the same floor and close at hand. 
Unless there is a regular school lunch in the main building. 



ROOMS IN THE SCHOOL BUILDING 39 

it is well to have a small kitchen where food can be heated 
and served. On one side a large storage closet is desirable; 
for the portable equipment of the open-air classroom is bulky 
and difficult to handle. Warm blankets and sitting-out bags 
should be provided for every child, and these must be kept in 
a dry closet at night. In addition to tables, chairs, black- 
boards, lunch equipment, toothbrushes, towels, and the like, 
a steamer chair, or, preferably, a cot bed must be provided 
for the use of every child. 

Auditoriums. The auditorium should be located on the 
first floor, and provided with separate exits leading directly 
outdoors. The floor should slant from the back of the room 
toward the stage. At each outside entrance there should be 
a cloakroom with toilet-room attached, and a booth where 
tickets may be taken. By this arrangement the auditorium 
may be used for meetings of adults without its being neces- 
sary for them to go through the main parts of the building. 
The stage should be so arranged that it can be easily en- 
larged by moving the scenery, so that a comparatively large 
number of people may be accommodated upon it. It is usu- 
ally desirable to provide simple stage equipment for lowering 
curtain, arranging scenery, and using special lighting. On 
each side of the stage should be a small room which can be 
reached without going through the main auditorium. A cur- 
tain should be provided on which stereopticon pictmes can 
be shown. In planning to use the stereopticon the laws of 
the particular State in which the building is to be erected 
should be carefully examined, for in many places some spe- 
cial regulation has been passed concerning the use of stereop- 
ticon or moving-picture machines in non-fireproof or partly 
fireproof buildings. 

Where the auditorium is to be used extensively for classes 
or study, careful attention should be paid to the question of 
lighting. Frequently the most effective manner of lighting 



40 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

is to install glass in the ceiling rather than at the sides. Since 
it is not customary to erect other classrooms above the audi- 
torium, overhead lighting is easily secured and may be made 
very effective. Artificial lights should be installed in such a 
way that, while ample illumination is secured, the source 
of light shall not be visible to members of the audience who 
are looking toward the stage. Indirect or semi-indirect 
methods of lighting are usually desirable for auditoriums. 

The gymnasium. The gymnasium is usually located either 
on the top floor or else in the basement of the building. The 
latter is probably the more common plan, because it is usu- 
ally easier to install showers, locker-rooms, dressing-rooms, 
swimming-pool, and running-track in the lower part of the 
building. Many of the newer schools, instead of one large 
gymnasium, have two smaller ones for separate classes of 
boys and girls, so that two groups may exercise at the same 
time. In planning the gymnasium special care should be 
taken to provide good ventilation and a plentiful supply of 
light. 

The minimum amount of floor space in square feet should 
be calculated by multiplying the number of children in the 
average gymnasium class by twenty. Cement floors are 
commonly found in gymnasiums, but they are undesirable 
because they are too cold and hard. Moreover, unless espe- 
cially treated, they give off a fine gray dust which rises in the 
air when classes are exercising. Cork and rubber preparations 
make very good floors, but these are exceedingly expensive, 
and they have the added disadvantage of making the gym- 
nasium unavailable for dancing. Probably the most satis- 
factory floor covering is of carefully selected maple board. 
Where the gymnasium is located in the basement, with no 
other rooms beneath it, it is essential that if wooden floors 
are used, a large number of auger-holes be bored through 
the baseboard, and space be left connecting with the space 




QQHB.n 
Q Q bP , 




ROOMS IN THE SCHOOL BUILDING 43 

beneath the floor, so that the floor may be well ventilated 
and dry rot prevented. 

Attached to the gymnasium there should be two small 
rooms, one for storing apparatus and the other for the use 
of the gymnasium teacher and medical inspector. 

Libraries. To an increasing and encouraging degree the 
public schools are becoming branches of the local public 
libraries. In some communities a shelf in each classroom is 
filled with library books, which are changed twice a month. 
In other places there is a central room, holding collections 
of books owned by the school and other books lent by the 
library, where children may go and study during class hours. 
Sometimes these rooms are open in the evening, and children 
are encouraged to do their studying at school rather than at 
home. In a few cases we find regular library rooms, with 
trained librarians in charge, to serve the needs, not only of 
the children in the school building, but of the people in the 
community as well. This latter plan is so rapidly increasing 
in favor that we find a large number of our newest school 
buildings providing library rooms for community service. 
These rooms are necessarily so located that access can be 
had to them without entering the rest of the building. They 
are usually on the first floor, although rooms on the second 
floor may be used if outside stairways lead directly to them. 
Occasionally the library is established in a wing of its own, 
or even, in some cases, in a small outside building, so that it 
may be heated properly at night without the expense of 
heating the rest of the school building also. 

No matter how simple a library may be, there should 
always be room enough for children to sit down and study or 
read without having to take the books away from the room. 
A plentiful supply of fight should be admitted, and if chairs 
are movable this light may be on more than one side of the 
building. Overhead lighting, if carefully installed so that 



44 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

direct rays will not fall through the glass, is frequently found 
exceedingly effective. Tables should be provided on which 
to rest books, but care should be taken not to have these 
tables too high. The library tables should be about the same 
height as the desks which most of the children use. This 
means that in primary schools they should be much lower 
than in high schools. In buildings where classes of different 
ages are accommodated, tables should be supplied of vary- 
ing sizes. The chairs should be selected in much the same 
way; different-sized chairs being provided for different-sized 
children. Care should be provided to see that the chair 
provides proper support for the back when an upright posi- 
tion is assumed. Artificial lights carefully placed and plenti- 
ful in number should be supplied for night use. 

Lunchrooms. Where children stay at school during the 
noon hour, or where penny lunches are served during the 
morning recess, a special place should be provided for serving 
and eating lunches. The lunchroom should be quickly and 
easily accessible. When it is placed on the top floor of a 
building, for example, attendance will be much less than 
when it is placed in the basement or on the first floor, be- 
cause children are not willing to climb stairs, unless com- 
pelled to do so. Where large numbers are to be served, 
direct exits should be provided so that children can reach 
the playground without loss of time. 

The lunchroom may often be planned so that during hours 
of the day when lunches are not being served it may be 
utilized for other purposes. It is not uncommon to find 
lunchrooms in the basement playroom or in large corridors. 
In some cases the lunchroom is in a large first-floor room 
• which is also used by regular study classes. Since the room 
is already equipped with table and chairs, this is probably a 
good arrangement, especially if such a room is made to open 
off the main Hbrary and if it is properly cleaned after each 



ROOMS IN THE SCHOOL BUH^DING 45 

meal. The lunchroom should be well lighted and should be 
provided with special ventilation. It should be easily accessi- 
ble from outdoors and from the rest of the building. If possi- 
ble, chairs and tables should be provided for the children, 
but where space is inadequate, long settees, or, better still, 
movable chairs with one broad arm, should be provided so 
that the children can sit down while they eat. 

The kitchen and serving-room should open off one end of 
the main dining-room. Counters or long tables should be 
provided on which to display food for sale. A ticket booth 
should stand near the entrance, and it is also usually de- 
sirable to have an aisle railed off to prevent children from 
coming in in groups. A clear passage should also be left 
through which soiled dishes may be carried to the washing- 
room. The kitchen should be built with fireproof walls, 
ceiling, and floor. It should be well lighted and heated and 
should be provided with special ventilation. Beyond the 
kitchen shoilld be a large storeroom which is kept cool and 
dry, and a small dressing-room where the workers can change 
their clothing and hang their outer wraps. This dressing- 
room should be provided with washing and toilet facilities. 
The kitchen floor should be warm. Where basement space 
in old buildings is being utilized, the floors are often of con- 
crete and very cold. In such places it is usually well to pro- 
vide mats of wooden slats to place in front of the sink. A 
plentiful supply of shelves and drawers should be installed 
in the kitchen and service-room to hold the necessary lunch- 
room equipment. 

Dispensary. Every school building should have a dispen- 
sary for the use of school physicians and nurse. In old 
buildings this may either be the end of a corridor or part of 
the basement, partitioned off and carefully finished, with 
wooden floors and walls. There are very few buildings in 
which some space cannot be found which with thought and 



46 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

ingenuity can be made into a satisfactory dispensary. Walls 
and ceilings should be painted white and made so that they 
can be easily washed. Opening off the main dispensary should 
be a small dressing-room containing washstand and toilet. 
The dispensary should be provided with a couch, a pair of 
scales, a cabinet for holding medical supplies, a waste-basket, 
several chairs, and a table. 

Office. The principal's office should be so located that it 
can be easily and quickly reached from every part of the 
building; and it should also be near the main entrance, so 
that visitors to the school can find the office quickly. Per- 
haps the commonest location is either to the right or the left 
of the main entrance on the first floor, although it is fre- 
quently on the second floor directly at the head of the stair- 
way. Where possible it is advisable to have a small reception- 
room attached to the main office. Both reception-room and 
office should be well lighted and furnished attractively, with 
comfortable chairs and tables. In the office there should also 
be a modern flat-top desk for the principal, a good-sized 
bookcase, and a vertical filing-cabinet for correspondence 
and cards. A large closet should open from the main office, 
in which may be stored materials for temporary study. 
Attached to the office there should also be a small dressing- 
room, equipped with toilet facilities. 

Teachers' room. In every building there should be at 
least one, and in large buildings there should be more than 
one, room set aside for the use of the teaching staff. Where 
men as well as women are employed there should be separate 
rooms for each sex. These rooms should be attractively fur- 
nished. They should be provided with a fair-sized table and 
several comfortable chairs. On one side there should be a 
full-length lounge with one or more pillows and a steamer 
rug. In a corner of the room behind a screen there should be 
provided facilities for heating food. In old buildings the 



ROOMS IN THE SCHOOL BUILDING 47 

stove may be heated by gas or oil, but in new buildings, 
where electricity is available, by far the most convenient 
arrangement is an electric plate. A shelf should be provided 
below on which cooking-utensils may be stored, and a small 
cabinet is desirable for the care of cups and plates. It will 
also be found convenient to have in the teachers' room a 
small bookcase for books and magazines. Toilet and wash- 
room, with a good mirror and a plentiful supply of towels, 
should open off the main room. 

The janitor's room. The janitor is probably the most 
neglected person in the whole school system. A good jan- 
itor is harder to find and harder to replace than a good 
teacher, and, in most cases, than a good school principal. 
He has a longer working day than any one else in the system. 
During extremely cold weather in the winter he sometimes 
must reach the schoolhouse as early as four o'clock in the 
morning, and has to stay there until eleven at night, in order 
to keep the fires going. Yet it is an exceedingly rare thing to 
find a school building equipped with a comfortable room set 
aside for the sole use of the janitor. Wliere any space at all 
exists, it is frequently a small cubbyhole opening off of the 
coal-bin, and roughly boarded in with whitewashed walls 
and cement floor. 

The janitor's office must usually be located in the base- 
ment, but this is no excuse for making it ugly and uncom- 
fortable. It should be near the boiler-room, but so located 
that it is well lighted and receives direct sun during part of 
the day. The floor should be of wood, linoleum, or other 
covering, such as is used for regular business offices. A good- 
sized desk should be provided, with filing-drawers for the 
filing of correspondence, accounts, and other papers which 
the janitor must handle. There should be a comfortable 
armchair and two or three other chairs, and it is also 
probably desirable to furnish a comfortable couch. Beside 



48 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

the desk there should stand a telephone which connects 
with the principal's office. Where a system of thermographs 
is installed which shows the condition of the temperature in 
each room, the recording apparatus should be established in 
the janitor's office. There should also be direct connection 
from his office with the fire-alarm system. Opening from one 
side should be a small toilet-room with hot and cold running 
water. With a little intelligent planning almost every school 
building may be provided with a comfortable and well- 
equipped office for the janitor. The resulting increase in the 
efficiency of service rendered will be ample evidence that the 
investment is a wise one. 

Storerooms. In most school buildings too little attention 
is paid to the question of storage space. It is not uncommon 
to find shelves placed at the foot of the attic stairways, or 
even in cupboards imder the stairways. Both of these places 
are bad. On the one hand, they do not provide enough space, 
and on the other, they are a constant source of danger from 
fire. The attics themselves should never be used as storage 
places, for the same reason. Certain materials may success- 
fully be kept m the basement, but in old buildings basement 
storerooms are apt to be damp, so that material stored 
there becomes rusty or mouldy. 

It is probably desirable to have at least two storerooms 
in the building. One may be in the basement, carefully 
arranged to avoid dampness, and intended for storing jan- 
itor's supplies. The other storeroom should be above the 
basement level and should be used for storing books, pa- 
pers, and so forth. Rooms where inflammable materials 
are stored, such as paints, oils, raffia, and the like, should 
be built with fireproof ceilings, walls, and floors. Where 
sprinkler protection is installed in a building it is usually 
wise to have sprinkler heads in the ceilings of these store- 
rooms. 



ROOMS IN THE SCHOOL BUILDING 49 



QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 

1. Outline the changes in architecture and equipment which would 
have to be made if your own educational philosophy were fully lived 
up to. 

2. What are the standard instruments for measuring light? Which are 
the most applicable for school purposes? 

S. Make a study of typical high-school programs, and with this as a basis 
specify the number and dimensions of classrooms which would most 
efficiently meet the present demands of each school. 

4. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of room wardrobes, 
sunken wardrobes, lockers, etc., and their location in classrooms, halls, 
or basements. 

5. How should a classroom for partially blind children differ from that 
for the deaf? For mental defectives? For truants? 

6. How should the size of an auditorium be calculated? What special 
considerations should be kept in mind? 

7. For what purposes may flat roofs be utilized? 

8. What plans have been placed in operation for combining gymnasiums 
and auditoriums? What are their respective advantages and disad- 
vantages? 

9. Are school authorities justified in building auditoriums which are used 
only three times a year? For half an hour each morning? What is 
the basis for deciding? 

10. How may cement floors be prepared for dancing? Linoleum floors? 

11. Outline a plan for cooperation between the public library and the 
public schools. What is your opinion of Cubberley's proposition that 
the public libraries and museums should be under the direction of 
school authorities? 

12. How much storage space should be allowed for an eight-room ele- 
mentary school, and how should it be distributed? 



SELECTED REFERENCES 

American School Board Journal. Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee. 
See current numbers and past files. Contains much valuable material. 

Bruce, W. G. School Architecture. Johnson Service Company, Milwaukee. 
U910.) 
Good general reference. 

Burgerstein, Leo. School Hygiene, translated from German by B. L. 
Stevenson and A. L.Von der Osten. F. A. Stokes & Company, New 
York. (1915.) 
Excellent reference book. 



so HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration. Houghton Mifflin Com- 
pany. (1916.) 

Chapter xxiv, on "Auxiliary Educational Agencies," points out the desirability of 
connecting libraries and museums more closely with the schools. 

Dresslar, Fletcher B. School Hygiene. The Macmillan Company, New 
York. (1913.) 

Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. See various articles. 

See also chapters on buildings in various school surveys, especially those 
for Butte, Cleveland, Denver, Portland, Salt Lake City, and Brook- 
line, Mass. 



CHAPTER IV 

CLASSROOM EQUIPMENT 

Platform. The teacher's platform probably originated 
in the days when, under the old Lancastrian system, one 
teacher with a few pupil assistants was placed in charge of 
a schoolroom containing often as many as three hundred 
children. With any such number as that it became exceed- 
ingly important that the teacher be given a point of vantage 
from which to see what was going on. Wilderspin, with his 
infant school, tried the plan of seating children upon wide 
steps rising one above the other, not unlike circus seats. 
This arrangement is still common in the primary schools of 
England. For the older children in this country in the early 
days we find slanting floors, small platforms each lifting a 
row of seats above the row in front, seats themselves grad- 
uated in height, platforms along the rear of the room, and 
finally the front platform which has remained until the 
present day. Now that the number of pupils per classroom 
has been materially reduced, the need for a raised platform 
has disappeared. From the hygienic standpoint the raised 
platform is a dirt-gatherer and a nuisance. Pedagogical 
reasons are equally against it; and the two forces combined 
are banishing the platform from the schoolroom. 

Blackboards. The front, back, and right-hand walls of 
most schoolrooms are lined with blackboards, or what were 
known in the early days as "lecture boards." The first form 
was several planed boards nailed together and painted black. 
Sometimes the teacher's desk was painted black on the 
outside and its front panels used as writing space for the 
younger children. At the present time there are many 



52 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

different forms. Prepared cloth or strong black paper is 
useful for temporary work, especially when charts or signs 
must be carried from building to building. They should 
never be installed as permanent blackboards. There are 
very many different forms of paper or wood-pulp composi- 
tion boards pressed into sheets which are fairly satisfactory 
for brief periods. They are pleasing in appearance, easily 
mounted, and inexpensive. Most of such preparations, how- 
ever, cannot be washed without absorbing water, become 
damp during rainy weather, gradually grow oily, and in 
time buckle or chip. Composition blackboards are rarely 
wise investments. 

Perhaps the commonest form of blackboard now in use is 
made by covering brick or wood lath with plaster, and 
painting the surface. These plaster boards crack in fine lines, 
and frequently blister and peel. They are rapidly going out 
of use. A fairly satisfactory board on much the same prin- 
ciple may be made by setting up a solid backing of wood, 
brick, or cement, laying metal lath upon it, and then apply- 
ing a smooth layer of good-quality cement, colored black, 
with just a tinge of green. If a wood backing is used, care 
must be taken or the absorption of water will cause the 
cement to crack as it dries. Cement boards are apt to be of 
different colors in different parts of the room, owing to the 
necessity of mixing in small quantities; and after being used 
for some time they frequently fade or spot. Even when 
great care is used in smoothing the surface, the grain is 
usually so rough that chalk is quickly worn down. There 
are on the market several varieties of material to be laid 
on in a similar way, most of which are open to the same 
objections. 

It is said to be the common practice in England to make 
blackboards out of heavy sheets of glass, ground as smooth 
as possible on one side and rather rough on the other. The 



CLASSROOM EQUIPMENT 53 

rough side is painted any desired color, and the board is 
then mounted with the rough side toward the wall. The 
smooth face presents an excellent writing surface, and the 
strokes made by the chalk stand out clearly against the 
painted background. Grinding must be done carefully so 
that any remaining roughness will not cut too deeply into 
the chalk. Glass blackboards are rather expensive, and 
have been little used in this country. It is rather unfortu- 
nate that more experiments have not been carried on with 
them; for while they break easily during transportation, 
when once set up they are durable, easily cleaned, satisfac- 
tory to write upon, and may be given any desired color. It 
is not improbable that at some time we may have "black- 
boards'* of glass tinted in buff or cream, and dark-colored 
chalk used instead of white. Such a chan,ge would prob- 
ably be of benefit to the eyes, and certainly would make an 
immense change in the general attractiveness of the school- 
room. 

Slate blackboards were introduced into this country early 
in the nineteenth century. It is interesting to note that 
among the arguments in favor of slate, as opposed to painted 
wood, was the suggestion that slate pencils might then take 
the place of chalk, and much disagreeable dust be avoided. 
At the present time the best schools in the country are 
equipped throughout with slate boards; and, when cut in 
large slabs and carefully set up, this material is probably 
the superior to everything except glass. Unless great care is 
used in fastening the slabs to their backing, cracks are left 
between portions. Frequently slabs warp, and the joints jut 
out so that chalk and eraser often knock against them. Slate is 
expensive, but practically never wears out. It can be washed 
freely. If care is taken in selection and installation, the slate 
blackboard gives good service. Slate or glass should be the 
only materials used for blackboards in new school buildings. 



54 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

Placing and heights. Blackboards should never be placed 
between windows, because when children face directly 
toward the light the pupil of the eye contracts so as to shut 
out part of the glare. When they are in this contracted con- 
dition any attempt to read what is written on the wall next 
to the window is difficult, and often positively harmful, be- 
cause the eyes are not properly adjusted for such work. In 
rooms lighted from the left side only there will be no space 
available for blackboards between windows, but boards may 
properly be placed upon the other three sides. Most of the 
work of the students should be done upon the board directly 
opposite the windows, since it is here that the work is most 
easily read by others. The board at the front of the room 
should be especially planned for use by the teacher. 

In the first and second grades the boards at side and back 
should be placed twenty-four inches from the floor, and 
should be twenty-eight inches wide. In the third and 
fourth grades they may be set twenty-seven inches from the 
floor and be thirty inches wide; in the fifth and sixth grades, 
thirty inches from the floor and thirty-two inches wide; in 
the upper grammar grades, thirty-two inches from the floor 
and thirty-six inches wide; and in the high school, thirty-six 
inches from the floor and forty inches wide. In each case 
the distance from the floor is determined by the height at 
which smaller pupils in each grade are able comfortably to 
write upon the blackboard; while the width recommended 
is that which will give the needed amount of writing area 
without adding unnecessary surface of light-absorbing 
material. If, as has been previously suggested, the glass 
board with cream-colored background ever becomes a part 
of our school equipment, the width may be materially in- 
creased without danger of eye-strain. The teacher's board 
at the front of the room should be thirty-six inches from the 
floor and forty inches wide. Children will rarely be required 



CLASSROOM EQUIPMENT 55 

to write upon this board; its height should be convenient for 
the teacher's use; and it should be easily seen from seats at 
the back of the room. In ungraded classes the board should 
be twenty-four inches from the floor and from thirty-six to 
forty inches wide. Light-colored curtains should be provided 
to cover the boards when not in use. 

Dust and erasers. The alarming prevalence of tubercu- 
losis among school children and teachers is frequently 
charged to the excessive amounts of chalk dust which fill the 
air of classrooms, are taken into the lungs, and irritate the 
delicate surface of the breathing tracts. Chalk seems to be a 
necessary classroom tool, but with proper care may be pre- 
vented from doing harm. Dustless crayons are now on the 
market which are a distinct improvement upon the soft 
plaster-of-Paris preparations which were formerly widely 
used. Soft chalk, which easily crumbles and writes with too 
thick a line, should be eliminated from the schoolroom 
and its purchase should be prohibited. A trough should be 
placed below each board, with a deep depression to catch 
the dust. A wide-meshed wire screen, fastened with hinges, 
should be placed across the top, so that erasers may rest 
upon it instead of being allowed to rest directly upon piles 
of powdered chalk. The hinges make it easy to lift the screen 
and clean the troughs at the close of each session. For schools 
where vacuum cleaning plants are installed, there has been 
devised special apparatus for removing chalk dust from 
troughs without the labor of using dustcloth or brush. 

Fifteen years ago cleaning erasers was a privilege highly 
coveted by all the class, and the good little child with weak 
lungs, chronically too tired to get into mischief, was usually 
awarded the honor. It was a common thing to see children 
at open windows, holding a wooden eraser covered with felt 
in each hand, and energetically clapping them together to 
remove the dust. The open window usually created a draught 



56 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

and the cooler outside air was sucked into the room, carry- 
ing hberated particles of chalk back with it and covering 
hair and faces of the monitors with soft grayish-white 
powder. Even to-day there probably are teachers who carry 
on the custom, but in most cases such indefensible action is 
due to ignorance rather than to intentional cruelty. 

If erasers must be whacked against hard surfaces in order 
to clean them, the work should be done well away from the 
school building, in the open air, by an adult person with 
strong lungs. There are, however, on the market several 
different kinds of machines for this purpose, all of which are 
designed to catch the dust as it escapes without permitting 
it to fly out into the room. Some of these machines are 
equipped with revolving brushes; others draw the dust out 
by means of a vacuum pump. Several of the designs are 
effective and inexpensive, and within the reach of every 
schoolboard. If a vacuum cleaning apparatus has been in- 
stalled in the building, a hose attachment with a long narrow 
opening can easily be provided in the basement by means 
of which the janitor can clean all erasers. 

Desks and chairs; rules for placing. Ever since before the 
days of Horace Mann we have been experimenting with 
schoolroom desks and chairs. Scores of different models have 
been devised and theories evolved, each securing its own 
small group of ardent advocates. At the present time there 
seems to be even greater diversity than before; and the sug- 
gestions advanced may be roughly divided into three main 
groups. 

The first and largest group contemplates a continuance 
of the present educational method by which children are 
expected to spend most of their time in sitting still. Under 
such a system it is necessary to provide chairs and desks 
which will be comfortable, and do no more harm than is un- 
avoidable to growing children. Most suggestions for school- 




Fig. 9. A Movable Schoolroom Chair 

Now much used. A drawer under the seat holds the books. The desk arm is 
adjustable 



CLASSROOM EQUIPMENT 57 

room furniture fall under this head. There are few definite 
rules which are followed by all the advocates of fixed desks 
and seats, but the following suggestions are commonly ac- 
cepted : — 

1. Adjustment. Desks and chairs should be adjusted to 
the height of the child. This may be done either by supply- 
ing several different sizes for each room, or by making any 
individual piece of furniture so that it can be adjusted to the 
needs of the person using it. In buying furniture it is well 
to make sure that the adjustments can be made swiftly 
and easily. Many janitors find this one of their most tedi- 
ous tasks. Furniture has been devised with a simple crank 
arrangement which raises or lowers chair or desk while the 
child is actually in his place. The work can be rapidly done 
by an older pupil under the teacher's direction. 

2. Inspection. This should be made after every promo- 
tion period to see to it that adjustment has actually been 
made. Practically all city superintendents admit the neces- 
sity of supplying furniture of different sizes, or else adjust- 
able furniture, but there are few cities in which more than 
three fourths of the children are so supplied, and there is 
hardly a city in the country where such adjustable furniture 
is actually adjusted after each promotion period. 

S. Should be single. That is, each desk or chair should be 
intended for one person only. In Europe and in some parts 
of this country the old style of double desks and chairs is 
still retained, but the custom is rapidly disappearing. Double 
seating usually means lack of adjustment to the individual 
child and interference of one child with his fellow. 

4. Feet and floor. Seats should be low enough so that the 
pupil's feet rest squarely on the floor; otherwise the blood 
vessels in the under part of the thigh become constricted 
and retard circulation. In exaggerated cases it is claimed 
that the thigh bone actually becomes bent and the child is 



58 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

permanently deformed as a result of continued sitting on too 
high a chair. Dr. Dresslar suggests that the proper height 
of the seat is approximately two sevenths of the height of 
the child. On the other hand, seats should never be so low 
that the knee is raised above the level of the hips. 

6. Rounded corners. Seats and desks should be rounded 
at the corners, in order to prevent possible injuries. 

6. Shape of seat. Seats should be slightly hollowed out to 
fit the natural curve of the body, instead of being flat like a 
settee. The width of the seat from back to front should be 
that which affords sufficient support for the body, but at 
the same time brings the back of the body against the back 
of the chair. Burgerstein suggests a width of two thirds the 
thigh length. 

7. Tilting of seat. Many authorities claim that the seat 
of the chair should be tipped slightly back, as are the seats 
of rocking-chairs, so that the body is easily brought in con- 
tact with the back rest. 

! 8. The support for the back. The back rest should be tipped 
slightly, and should afford support for the spine. It is on 
this latter point that recommendations differ most widely. 
Many authorities claim that the chair back should not rise 
above the lower part of the shoulder blades. Others demand 
hip rests rather than back rests. Some claim that chairs for 
girls should have a greater curve inward than chairs for 
boys. Many persons emphatically demand that every chair 
be equipped with a movable back rest, which can be raised or 
lowered and is intended to support "the small of the back." 
The facts seem to be that in a correct sitting posture the 
spine shows a slight inner curve, but that this curve is much 
more shallow in sitting than in standing. The inward spinal 
curve of adolescent girls is greater than that of boys. Sup- 
port should be given to the spine, and may be supplied either 
by the naturally curved back of the chair, or by movable 



CLASSROOM EQUIPMENT 59 

rests which can be adjusted to the needs of the individual 
child. In this connection it is important to note that great 
discomfort may result either from placing the supporting 
pad too low or in allowing it to project too far forward. The 
old "liver-pad " form of seat, which was highly recommended 
some time ago, furnished a low back fitting closely against 
the lumbar region of the spine. This design has since been 
generally discarded because it was found that in many chil- 
dren long hours of sitting in such a seat produced bladder 
trouble, accompanied by excess of albumen in the urine. 

9. The ''minus distance.'' Desks should be so placed that 
the top of the desk projects over the front of the seat, and 
yet suflBcient room is provided to allow children to rise with- 
out crowding. The accepted standard for this relation of 
chair and desk is that a plumb line dropped from the center 
of the front of the desk should mark a point one and one half 
inches in from the front edge of the chair. This overlapping 
of the chair and desk is known as "minus distance." Where 
the front edge of the desk is exactly above the front edge of 
the chair the condition is known as "zero distance," and 
where there is a space between the two edges it is known as 
"plus distance." It is unfortunately true that in some of our 
leading school systems, where the most approved types of 
furniture are being installed, the actual screwing fast of 
chairs and desks is done without adequate supervision, and 
zero or plus distances are frequently the result. 

What plus distance means to the child who is forced to 
occupy the chair will be realized by any one who has had 
experience with certain lunch-places where revolving stools 
are fastened to the floor at some distance from the counter. 
Where the stools are also so high that the customer's feet 
dangle into space and a foot -rail is not provided, one is given 
a vivid sample of the discomfort suffered by all too many of 
our school children. 



60 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

10. Desk height. School men vary widely in their stand- 
ards for desk height. One of the most common statements 
is that when the forearm rests on the top of the desk it 
should form a right angle with the upper arm. As a matter 
of fact there are practically no desks on the market which 
can be adjusted as low as this, because the space between 
elbow height and knee is less than the depth of the book box. 
The commonest practice is to place desks about the height 
of the end of the breast bone. Adherents of the high desk 
claim that the low desk causes round shoulders. Adherents 
of the low desk claim that the high desk results in cramped 
chests and crooked backs and eye-strain. It seems to be 
true that the lower the desk the more it must overlap the 
front of the seat. A pronounced minus distance with low 
desk combats rather successfully tendencies toward round 
shoulders. While few hard-and-fast rules can be laid down, 
it seems probable that further experiments will put book 
boxes at the side or under the chair, lower the desk from 
breast line or elbow, and push the chair well under the desk. 

11. Desk-top slant. The top of the desk should slant in 
order that books and papers may be held at as near a right 
angle with the line of vision as possible. With the flat table 
papers are often at a wide obtuse angle, and the result is 
that in order to see easily the student is obliged to place his 
book on an upright support or else bend forward. The gen- 
tleman at the restaurant table who stands his evening paper 
against the sugar bowl does so because of a strong hygienic 
impulse. It should be noted also that increased distance be- 
tween chair and desk increases the distance from eyes to 
book, and the obtuse angle between the book and the line 
of vision. Suggestions as to the proper slant range from ten 
to forty -five degrees. Adherents of the extreme slant bring 
forward as arguments engravings of the desks used in medi- 
eval monasteries for some of the most beautiful writing ever 





Fig. 10. Types of Adjustable Seats and Desks 

(a) Teacher adjusting chair and desk to the boy (6) Boy adjusting seat 





H 

m 



CLASSROOM EQUIPMENT 61 

done. These desks were slanted at an angle of about fifty 
degrees. Ink was used, and the pens were of poorer quality 
than those of the present day. People on the other side state 
that at such a slant books, papers, and pencils slide to 
the floor, ink will not run, and the child is hidden from the 
teacher. 

In general it may be stated that the nearer the desk top 
is slanted to a forty-five degree angle during reading or 
written work the better it meets the requirements of vision, 
and the less danger there is of spinal curvature due to faulty 
sitting position. Practically, although many desks with 
adjustable lids have been invented, very few have proved 
satisfactory. Usually the mechanism is elaborate and apt to 
get out of order. Desks slanting at fifteen degrees are com- 
monly manufactured, and are much superior to the flat top. 
For the present many school men will feel that the fifteen 
degree desk is the only one sufficiently durable and simple 
for wide schoolroom use. 

The importance of procuring a greater slant is, however, 
so great that every superintendent should bear in mind the 
possibility of devising satisfactory desks. Whenever a desk 
is brought to his attention which seems to combine new and 
desirable features the superintendent should see to it that 
a few samples — say five or six — are purchased and placed 
in the regular schoolrooms to be tried out by teachers and 
pupils. Through such a plan of experiment and criticism it 
should not be long before the up-to-date superintendent is 
able to secure desks and chairs which will be easy to adjust, 
inexpensive, and in accordance with rules of hygiene. 

12. Movable top. Some arrangement should be made 
whereby the front of the desk may be drawn toward the 
pupil when he writes, so that the forearm will receive ade- 
quate support. When this is done the angle between the line 
of vision and paper is considerably lessened. 



62 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

13. Pedestal chairs. There are various types of chair and 
desk supports on the market. Most chairs are placed on a 
single pedestal. Desks are either supported by one pedestal 
at the center back or by a leg on each side. It is probably 
desirable to use the one pedestal method wherever furniture 
can be found so manufactured that the pedestal can be fixed 
firmly to the floor and will not pull loose. The furniture now 
on the market varies so greatly in this respect that care 
should be taken to experiment with different samples before 
buying. Single-pedestal furniture makes the problems of 
cleaning very much simpler for the janitor, because it fur- 
nishes few crannies in which dirt and sweeping compounds 
can lodge. 

The use of one pedestal for a desk and the chair in front 
of it is usually not wise, because it makes rearrangement of 
furniture difiicult, sometimes prevents adjustment to fit size 
of pupil, and usually allows the desk to be shaken by move- 
ments of the child who sits in the chair attached to it. 

Movable furniture. Most school men regard the fixed 
chair and desk, for the present at least, as a necessity. There 
are a few, however, who earnestly advocate some form 
movable furniture. A pioneer in the movable furniture 
movement was Horace Mann, together with Joseph W. 
Ingraham and other co-workers. Mann advocated small 
armchairs, with boxes for books placed at the side, back, 
or under the seat. No lapboard was considered necessary. 
These chairs were widely used in the Boston primary schools, 
and Henry Barnard, in speaking of them somewhat later, 
declares that they were exceedingly successful. 

During the past few years the agitation in favor of mov- 
able furniture has again come into prominence. Several 
varieties are on the market. Some are made with broad 
arms on the right-hand side, similar to the chairs so com- 
monly used in college lecture-rooms. Others are adjustable 



CLASSROOM EQUIPMENT 63 

in height, with swinging arms. The rules just cited as to 
height, width, back, etc., hold good whether chairs are fixed 
or movable. The chief difficulty so far experienced with 
movable furniture is, that it is so constructed that it gets 
out of order easily, or else the writing-shelf is poorly braced 
and unsteady. Very few types have the desk attachment 
properly slanted. The various designs are constantly being 
revised, and doubtless before long we shall have available 
movable chairs and desks which will be as comfortable and 
durable as the better class of fixed furniture. 

From the point of view of educational method, movable 
furniture is desirable because it renders the school program 
more flexible. Space may be cleared in the center of the 
room for games or dramatic presentation. Chairs may be 
carried outdoors. Classes may be divided into five or six 
small groups, working in circles in different parts of the room. 
In such uses, however, care must be taken, whenever chil- 
dren are expected to sit quietly for as long as half an hour, 
to see that each child has found his own chair which is 
properly adjusted to him. In moving the chairs about it is 
an easy matter for children to become confused. 

Workroom furniture. In addition to those who argue in 
favor of fixed or movable furniture, there is a still smaller 
third group of educators who believe that it will not be long 
before present educational methods will have been discarded, 
and the classroom become a place where children are active 
at various tasks which require moving from place to place. 
In such a room there might be rugs for children to use in 
sitting or lying upon the floor, as is the case in the Mon- 
tessori school. There would probably be movable chairs of 
different sizes, tables for one, two, or three workers, tables 
at which children stand instead of sitting, long work-benches, 
and the like. The leaders of the new movement are as yet 
very indefinite in their planning, but it is probable that with 



64 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

new educational theories and experiments the traditional 
furniture of the classroom will gradually be displaced by 
equipment better suited to the needs of children who are 
actively learning. 

QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 

1. Dr. Dresslar, in his article on "School Architecture" in Monroe's 
Cyclopedia of Education, says, "in the churches and early schools the 
priest-teacher spoke ex cathedra; the fixed platforms in grammar 
schools are the remnants of these ..." What is your opinion? Why? 

2. What does the installation of a platform imply as to classroom method? 
8. Why should windows in unilaterally lighted rooms extend nearer the 

back than the front? 

4. In rooms lighted from two sides, what is the desirable arrangement 
of blackboard space? 

5. In inspecting buildings how can one tell by brief examination whether 
blackboards are of slate, cement, composition board, plaster on wood 
lath, plaster on brick, or paper? 

6. Why are not glass blackboards more popular in this country? Where 
they have been used what objections have been raised? 

7. In some schools wide frames holding scrolls of cheap paper are used 
instead of blackboards. What are the good and bad points of this 
practice? 

8. Make a collection of samples of chalk from different firms, and decide 
which is best for regular school use and why. 

9. What different devices are on the market for cleaning erasers? Com- 
pare as to principle, simplicity, effectiveness, speed, durability, and 
cost. 

10. How does the theory of the "normal surface of distribution" apply 
to the question of school furniture? Under what conditions may most 
of the chairs and desks in a classroom properly be non-adjustable? 

11. What different devices are there on the market for quick adjustment 
of furniture? How do they work? 

12. What should be the relative responsibility for having chairs and desks 
adjusted; of the teacher, principal, janitor, child, physical training 
teacher, school nurse, medical inspector, superintendent, and parent? 

13. Why is it that the shelf for a typewriter in an office desk of the flat- 
top type is usuallj'^ sunk five or six inches below the desk level? What 
angle is formed by the typist's forearm and upper arm? If typewriting 
were done with one hand only could the machine be raised? What 
bearing has this discussion on the question of school furniture? 

14. In some States there exist legal provisions against installing movable 
furniture in public schools. Why? How valid are the reasons grven?^ 



CLASSROOM EQUIPMENT 65 



SELECTED REFERENCES 

Ayres, May. "A Century of Progress in Schoolhouse Construction"; in 
American School Board Journal, June, July, August, September, 
1917. (Milwaukee.) 
Discusses ecclesiastical theory. 

Bruce, W. G. School Architecture. Johnson Service Company, Milwaukee. 
(1910.) 

Useful sections.on blackboards and school furniture. 

Burgerstein, L. School Hygiene. Translated by B. L. Stevenson and A. L. 

Von der Osten, New York. (1915.) 
Exceedingly useful reference book. 

Dresslar, Fletcher B. "School Architecture"; in Monroe's Cyclopedia of 
Education. The Macmillan Company, New York. (1911.) 
Gives ecclesiastical theory of school building construction. 

Dresslar, Fletcher B. School Hygiene. The Macmillan Company, New 
York. (1913.) 
One of the best references on topics treated in this chapter. 

Terman, Lewis M. The Building Situation and Medical Inspection ; Part 
V of the Denver School Survey Report. Denver, Colorado. (1916.) 

Brief sections dealing with seating and blackboards. 

Much valuable information can also be secured by a discriminating study 
of the printed matter issued by manufacturers and dealers in school 
equipment. 



CHAPTER V 

LIGHTING 

1, Natural Lighting 

Unilateral. We have already discussed at some length the 
placing of school buildings with respect to the points of the 
compass and the lighting. When the subject was first under 
discussion, various plans were suggested whereby lighting 
might be allowed from two sides — left and rear, or left and 
right, but during recent years the arguments in favor of 
unilateral lighting have been generally accepted. Since most 
children are right-handed, the right hand and arm are placed 
upon the desks in writing. Light coming from the right hand 
must then cast the shadow of the hand upon the writing 
surface. For this reason lighting from the right is undesir- 
able. When from left and right, cross-lights are established 
which are confusing to the eye. Light from the rear is unde- 
sirable because of its serious effect on the eyes of the teacher. 
As was stated in the earlier part of this chapter, it should be 
an unbreakable rule that no blackboards should be placed 
between windows. Therefore, if adequate blackboard space 
is to be secured the windows must be banked on one side. 

Breeze windows. In warm climates it is often desirable 
to place narrow windows, known as "breeze windows," close 
to the ceiling at the back of the room, or on the right side 
opposite the main windows. These breeze windows should 
be hinged on the lower side, and closed by means of cords 
and catches. Each window should be made tight against 
driving rains, and covered permanently with an opaque 
shade. The amount of draught caused by these windows 
may be regulated by changing the size of the opening. 



NATURAL LIGHTING 67 

Orientation. Classrooms should be lighted from the east 
or west. Those on the east receive the sunlight during the 
early part of the morning, but after about ten o'clock the 
sun has risen high enough so that direct rays no longer enter 
the window. Classrooms on the west receive direct rays of 
sunshine during the latter part of the afternoon. For this 
reason it will often be found wise to give lower-grade chil- 
dren, who are dismissed at an early hour, the western rooms, 
and upper-grade children eastern rooms, where after the 
first hour of school there is little trouble with direct sunshine. 

Glass area. In northern countries the actual glass area of 
windows should never be less than one fourth the floor space. 
In countries of the temperate zone the glass area may be 
not less than one fifth, although one fourth is preferable. 
In the tropics it is probably better to make the glass area 
one fifth of the floor space, and one sixth is permissible. 
Wherever the sky-line is high, the air filled with smoke, or 
light otherwise obstructed, the window surface should be 
correspondingly increased. It should be remembered that 
while it is very easy to exclude unnecessary light, it is pecu- 
liarly hard to increase light when windows do not supply 
enough. 

Placing. Windows should be placed in batteries along the 
left wall, and as near the back of the room as possible. Often 
in otherwise very well-arranged buildings one will find the 
windows evenly spaced along the side, or somewhat too far 
toward the front. In such cases the front blackboard, on 
which the teacher places illustrations and explanations, — 
probably the most important blackboard in the room, — is 
frequently subjected to a glare from the side windows which 
is not only exceedingly annoying to pupils, but is actually 
harmful. When windows are placed well back beyond the 
first row of seats the danger of such glare on the front board 
is removed. 



68 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

Square tops. Windows should reach within six inches of 
the ceiHng, and should be finished square at the top. It has 
been stated that one half of the sunlight received through 
the window comes through the upper third of the glass. If 
this be true, the upper third then is a most important area, 
and every square inch should be utilized. The old-fashioned 
pointed or arched window cannot be afforded in the modern 
school. Even curtain rollers or other fixtures should be re- 
moved from the top of the frame, because they cut off light 
which would otherwise find its way into the room. Since 
during most of the hours of the day sunlight enters the room 
in slanting rays, only those coming through the upper panes 
can possibly reach the farther desks. One of the most effec- 
tive ways of improving lighting at these desks is to remove 
every obstruction from the upper six inches of the window 
space. 

Height from floor. The lower part of the window should 
be not less than three and not more than four feet from the 
floor. Three and a half feet is a height commonly chosen. 
If the sill is much lower than this the outer row of desks re- 
ceives an over-supply of sunlight, which in some cases may 
be painful to the eyes of the child sitting there. Light which 
enters below the level of the eye is bound to cause irritation, 
because it over-stimulates the retina, which is at the same 
time striving to adapt itself to the light which falls from over- 
head. It is frequently urged also that when the windows are 
too low, children are able to see what is going on outside with- 
out rising from their seats, and as a result it is hard for the 
teacher to keep their attention upon what she is doing. If 
windows are higher than four feet it is usually impossible 
to provide sufficient glass area without using more than one 
side of the room. 

Frames and supports. Every possible square inch of win- 
dow space should be filled with glass. This means that> the 




Fig. 12. Remodeling a School Building to improve the 
Lighting 

The Friendship School, at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 

(o) Before remodeling. One of the most poorly lighted buildings in the city 
(6) After remodeling. The lighting conditions have been remedied to the great- 
est possible degree 




o 

o 

w 
o 

III 

it 
il 

?§ 

o 

g 

H 

w 
o 



NATURAL LIGHTING 69 

old thick piers of masonry beween windows must be en- 
tirely done away with. In their stead come narrow steel 
piers, beveled on inside and out, so that slanting rays may 
be allowed to enter. Lintels, muUions, and piers are all of 
steel, and all beveled, so that every obstruction possible is 
removed. 

Where for any reason lighting is obstructed, it is fre- 
quently necessary to increase the height of the ceiling. 
Although twelve and one-half feet is as high as the ordinary 
schoolroom should allow, it is better to sacrifice building 
costs and risk fatigue due to stair-climbing than to run the 
risk of eye-strain. 

Calculating window space. In making calculations for 
unilateral lighting, it is fairly safe to allow three and a half 
feet for width of glass for each window and one foot for 
mullions between windows. In the ordinary school building 
such mullions must be made of steel if they are to support 
the weight which naturally falls upon them. A steel muUion 
of twelve inches will do the work which frequently required 
brick piers three or four feet thick. In small wooden struc- 
tures of one story satisfactory twelve^inch mullions may be 
made of hard wood. The weight of walls above the window 
may also be caught and held by a steel beam or lintel com- 
bined with the narrow mullion. 

Prism glass. Prism glass is an exceedingly useful agent 
for remaking old buildings so that lighting shall be increased. 
This glass is so made that instead of merely allowing rays to 
pass directly through it, rays which otherwise would be lost 
are caught and bent, so that the amount of light entering 
the room is materially increased. Certain forms of ribbed or 
corrugated glass, which are highly recommended for school 
purposes, should be avoided because of their tendency to 
reflect light in bright lines and so tire the eye. Care should 
be taken to secure a thoroughly satisfactory form of com- 



70 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

mercial prism glass. When used in classroom windows, 
prism glass should be placed in the upper part of the win- 
dows. It is rather expensive, hard to keep clean because 
of its many ridges, and usually should not be installed until 
it has been made evident that remodeling the window or 
removing outside obstructions is out of the question. Prism 
glass is frequently useful for lighting dark hallways, toilets, 
basement playrooms, and wardrobes. 

Overhead lighting. Very recently there have been erected, 
in different parts of the United States, one-story school 
buildings which are lighted from the top. Most of these 
have what is known as "saw-tooth lighting," that is, the 
roof is made in lengthwise sections, each section shaped like 
a saw tooth, with one side slanting and the other verticaL 
The vertical side is made of glass. Saw-tooth lighting is 
largely used in factory buildings, because it has been found 
most satisfactory where careful handwork is being carried 
on. All parts of the room are lighted equally well, and there 
are no disturbing shadows. 

For school purposes, there seem to be four objections most 
commonly raised against overhead lighting of this type. In 
the first place, it is claimed that the sensation of being con- 
fined by four solid walls, without opportunity to see what is 
going on outside, is distinctly unpleasant. To obviate this 
difficulty some architects insert a glass paneled door or 
window on one side, with a curtain which can be drawn at 
will whenever the side light interferes with work. 

The second objection is that many of these buildings are 
supplied only with north light, and direct rays of the sun 
never enter. This is such an exceedingly serious defect in 
schoolhouse construction that active measures should be 
taken for the frequent admission of direct rays, either by 
placing the glass so that sunlight will be admitted before or 
after school hours (as, for example, by installing windows 



NATURAL LIGHTING 71 

facing west for morning classes), or else by providing special 
sun windows which are kept dark when classes are in session. 

The third difficulty encountered with overhead lighting is 
that the light is too strong, or filled with bright streaks, 
which cause eye-strain. Such a condition may arise from 
errors in location or installation, such as having the glass 
face toward the sunny side. Translucent and opaque shades 
may sometimes be needed, much as they are used in the 
photographer's studio, to cut off portions of the light. Some- 
times a second sheet of glass is installed in the ceiling, which 
helps to catch and diffuse the light. 

In the fourth place, where buildings are in exposed loca- 
tions, care must be taken to turn the windows away from 
prevailing winter winds, because otherwise they may be 
covered with curtains of snow or ice which are difficult to 
clear away. It is important that the roofs be easy of access, 
so that windows may easily be kept clear and clean. 

Window shades. The schoolroom shade is used to exclude 
direct rays of the sun; only rarely — as, for example, when 
stereopticon lectures are being given — should it be used to 
exclude ordinary sunlight. Therefore the opaque shade of 
green or black commonly used in schoolrooms is distinctly 
an unwise choice unless a light-colored shade is also installed. 
When annoying rays enter the room and shades are lowered 
say two and a half feet to cut them off, if the shades are 
opaque the amount of light received by desks on the farther 
side is very nearly cut in half. Mr. Rowe, who was one of 
the pioneers in studying schoolroom lighting, suggests shirt- 
ing, ecru, or light cream-colored twilling for shades, and 
states that he has had even more satisfactory results in his 
experiments with light sage color, which is dark enough to 
please the eye, but light enough to provide good schoolroom 
illumination. Care should be taken to select shades which 
are at least two inches wider than the space they are to 



72 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

cover. If narrower widths are used, the shade as it stirs in 
the wind allows long streaks of sunlight to appear at one side 
or the other, and is frequently a source of great annoyance 
for which no remedy can be found. 

It is of prime importance, also, that some scheme be de- 
vised whereby any portion of the window may be shaded 
without necessarily covering the portions below or above. 
If shades are fixed at the top, as is usually the case, in order 
to cut off glare from the row of desks nearest the window, 
the entire glass area must often be covered, and the desks 
at the farther side of the room are unnecessarily deprived of 
light. Exactly the opposite thing happens when shades are 
fixed at the bottom. It is frequently suggested that the bet- 
ter way is to fasten two rollers, about two fifths of the way 
up, and arrange one to shade the upper part of the window 
and the other the lower. Where this is done there is fre- 
quently difficulty because of a narrow slit, which allows a 
bright ray of sunlight to enter between the two rollers. One 
suggestion for remedying such a difficulty is to place the 
rollers so that the upper pulls toward the bottom of the win- 
dow and the lower pulls toward the top. Probably the most 
satisfactory arrangement for window shades is the adjust- 
able shade which has but recently been put upon the market. 
The roller can be fastened at any point on the casing by 
a very simple mechanism, and the shade raised or lowered 
so as to cover any desired portion of the glass. 

Any shade which is to be used by the average schoolroom 
teacher must be of exceedingly simple construction. Few 
women have had the training or experience in solving 
mechanical problems which come almost inevitably into 
the life of every boy. It would be well if all normal schools 
established classes in school hygiene which would include 
training in the principles and operation of simple h-eating, 
ventilating, cleaning, and lighting devices, so that teachers 



NATURAL LIGHTING 7S 

would not find themselves helpless before minor accidents 
to schoolroom equipment. Teachers should not only know 
how to untangle curtain cords, replace them on pulleys, and 
tighten the spring in the old-fashioned curtain roller, but 
they should have some knowledge of the principles of light- 
ing and should know how and when the cm-tains should 
be used. 

Wooden shutters, Venetian blinds, folding wooden blinds, 
and the like, should on no account be placed at a schoolroom 
window. They gather dust, seriously darken the room, get 
out of order, cut off breezes, and frequently allow narrow 
bars of sunlight to stream across the floor and irritate the 
eyes of the pupils. 

Color schemes. As part of the many experiments in school- 
room lighting, color schemes have been worked out for walls 
and ceilmg which are restful to the eye and yet do not absorb 
light. The plan adopted for the schools of Cleveland is 
typical of the more advanced practice. In Cleveland the 
colors used in classrooms have been carefully worked out 
and standardized. Wood is of dark dull finish, ceilings just 
off white, walls creamy gray, dados French gray. Rooms 
with north light have a little more color mixed with the gray 
than rooms with south light. ^ Blackboards are of the natural 
dark slate color. Desks and chairs are of a brownish dull 
stain which does not reflect light. In other cities buff is 
frequently used instead of gray; or the gray is mixed with 
just enough green to give it an olive tone. Reds, oranges, 
and browns should never be used, although a pale shade of 
tan is permissible. 

Lighting in old buildings. If the lighting of an old building 
is poor the following suggestions will probably be helpful: — 

1 It will be noted that in the opinion of the authors of the present work 
no classrooms should be planned to face north or south. Successful archi- 
tects can be found, however, who claim that north light is by far the more 
restful and should be utilized for study purposes. 



74 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

a. First, wash the windows. In many buildings it will be 
found that an astonishing difference is made in the amount 
of light admitted to schoolrooms by the simple expedient of 
cleaning windows more frequently. Dust and smoke gather 
on the outer surface of the glass and form a curtain which 
effectually bars out entering light rays. In cities where the 
air is very dirty, it may be necessary to double or treble the 
frequency with which windows are washed. 

h. Investigate to see whether there are obstructions out- 
side the window, such as hills, trees, or office buildings. In 
some cases such obstructions may be removed. 

c. Measure the amount of glass area and compare it with 
floor area. Such measurement does not make any change in 
the conditions found, but frequently changes the attitude 
of mind of the persons making the study. 

d. See whether windows may be raised at the top. Round 
or arched windows may often be made square. Sometimes 
ornamental semi-circles or transoms have been placed above 
each window, and when these are replaced by squares of 
plain glass the light area is measurably increased. Occasion- 
ally an extra window may be added, or the wide piers be- 
tween windows replaced by narrow metal muUions, and the 
additional area filled with glass. 

e. Notice from what direction the light comes. Are there 
windows at the front .'^ at the right .^ the left? the back.? If 
light enters from all four sides, the windows at the front and 
right can usually be covered with opaque shades or filled in 
entirely with blackboards. Occasionally the entire left side 
can be remodeled so that it is practically one huge window, 
and the extra windows of the other three sides filled in. 
Sometimes lighting can be improved simply by changing the 
direction in which the children face. Very little can be done 
to improve conditions in rooms lighted solely from the north 
or from the south, although in the latter case some help may 



NATURAL LIGHTING 75 

come from experimenting with different types of window 
shades. 

/. When windows are equipped with wooden bhnds, 
opaque shades, or the hke, see that these are replaced by 
new shades of approved construction and color. Remove the 
old-style shades whch are attached at top or bottom, and 
substitute the combination up-and-down shades, or, better 
still, the new type of adjustable roller which can be made 
fast at any point of the window frame. 

g. If windows are placed too near the floor, cover the 
lower panes with opaque shades. Again, if windows are too 
near the blackboard at the front, keep the curtain drawn 
on all bright days. 

h. Remove all blackboards which are placed between 
windows. 

i. Sometimes a dark room may be made lighter by re- 
painting the walls a lighter tint, or by placing curtains on 
rollers above each blackboard and keeping them drawn 
except when the boards are actually in use. 

j. Rooms may often be given a better diffused light by 
substituting a good quality of prism glass for plain glass at 
the top of the window. 

k. Occasionally it is wise to introduce glass panels into 
classroom partitions, or doors. The cases where this is justi- 
fiable are, however, few in number, because the practice 
usually results in cross-lights, or patches of light and shadow. 
Door panels are less objectionable than wall panels, espe- 
cially when they open into rather dark halls. Care should be 
taken to avoid glare through such panels, such as might be 
cast by a hall window or lighted court. 

/. If, in spite of various efforts, the lighting of the class- 
room continues to be insufficient, the desks farthest from the 
windows should be abandoned and actually removed from 
the room, so that there will be no temptation to use them. 



76 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

If the other desks are insufficiently illuminated, the room 
should either be abandoned or equipped with artificial lights 
and used for some school purpose other than regular classes. 

2, Artificial lighting 

Recent use of light at night. It is not until very recently 
that city schools have begun to be used at night. Since early 
times the country school has been the center of many com- 
munity activities. Religious services were often held there, 
frequently the schoolhouse was used for committee confer- 
ences or town meetings, while spelling-bees and singing- 
school were among the important social events of the winter. 
Most of these meetings were held in the evening, and many 
people who were educated in the country school still have 
vivid memories of the closely packed room, with every 
bench filled, and rows of small boys along the window ledges. 
Heat was furnished — sometimes far too vigorously — by 
the wood stove in the center of the room, and high on each 
wall swung an iron bracket holding a kerosene-oil lamp, 
with its tin reflector, shedding a dim yellow light over the 
company. 

Within the past decade there has sprung up a movement 
which aims to make all school buildings, whether in city or 
country, available for public purposes, and increasingly we 
find them open and brightly lighted for evening classes, 
clubs, athletic contests, dances, concerts, lectures, and 
dramatic presentations. The movement which has as its 
slogan, "Wider use of the school plant," has instituted many 
significant changes in school architecture. One of these is the 
emphasis which it has laid upon the necessity for adequate 
artificial lighting. City school buildings were sometimes 
lighted even before this time, but usually the work was 
poorly done, and had as its main purpose the supplementing 
of window lighting on rainy days. Now lighting plans are 



ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING 77 

carefully drafted by an illuminating engineer, and an 
attempt is made to forecast possible needs of the future, 
and to render each room a comfortable, well-lighted work- 
shop by night as well as by day. 

Direct glare. In planning artificial illuminating several 
dangers should be kept in mind. In the first place, care 
should be taken to prevent direct rays of light from entering 
the eye. Probably all of us have attended public lectures in 
halls where clusters of unshaded electric lights hung from 
the ceiling above the speaker's head, or branched out from 
supporting pillars directly in our line of vision. One such 
evening should be sufficient to convert the most doubtful 
superintendent or school board member to the necessity for 
carefully shaded and well-placed lighting in the public 
building. There is no excuse for permitting direct glare in 
the schoolroom. 

Lamps should be placed so that their light falls from above 
the line of vision, and somewhat to the left : that is, no lamp 
should extend below an imaginary line drawn from the eye 
of the pupil in the back row of seats to a point about two 
feet above the blackboard, and all fixtures should be so 
located that they shine to the left of the pupils, and so avoid 
casting shadow of head and shoulders upon the desk. 

Indirect glare. In the second place, indirect glare should 
be avoided. Shiny blackboards, polished woods, glossy 
paint, framed pictures, maps, and the like, tend to reflect 
light into the eyes of the pupil, and frequently cause dis- 
comfort or even severe headache. It is a safe rule in school- 
room furnishing to avoid all glossy surfaces. Desks should 
receive a dull finish. Walls should be slightly roughened or 
covered with dull paint. Where highly polished surfaces 
cannot be avoided, as is sometimes the case with maps or 
blackboards, special pains should be taken to prevent reflec- 
tions from lamps by careful placing and shading. 



78 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

Flickering. Flickering light is exceedingly annoying, and 
is also a common cause of eye-strain. Most people find that 
reading for several hours at a stretch while on a railroad 
journey results in a severe headache, although reading the 
same length of time at home produces no noticeable fatigue. 
One of the reasons is that, due to the motion of the car over 
its not too even roadbed, both book and light are constantly 
shifting, and as the eye seeks to adapt itself to these continu- 
ous quick changes the muscles quickly tire. Similar trouble 
is found by the hunter who seeks to write letters at the 
open camp-fire, or the small boy who peruses his forbidden 
novel in the top loft of the barn by the aid of a flickering 
candle. The lamps selected for schoolroom use must be 
supplied with a steady amount of current or fuel; open 
flames must be protected from draughts; and fixtures should 
be so installed that they are unaffected by sudden jars or 
vibrations. 

Intensity. Care should be taken not to provide lighting 
of too great intensity. It is curiously true that most people 
feel uncomfortable unless they are supplied with consider- 
ably more light than is actually necessary in order to work 
well. It is usually possible in such cases to compromise by 
supplying over-illumination for small areas directly over the 
work-table, but being careful not to plunge the whole room 
into intense light. 

Shadows. Shadows on desk surfaces are undesirable, be- 
cause they make it difiicult for pupils to see their work. For 
this reason we often find the statement that all shadows 
should be eliminated from the artificially lighted classroom. 
As opposed to this theory we have the fact that it is actually 
restful to the eye to have somewhat less light reflected from 
surrounding surfaces than from the work area itself. For 
example, it is more restful to read a book while seated at a 
table covered with a dark green cloth than to read at the 



ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING 79 

same table when it is prepared for a meal and covered with 
smoothly laundered white damask. In the first instance, 
most of the light reflected into the eye comes from the pages 
of the book; in the second, light is pouring up from the entire 
table area, and the eye muscles seek to accommodate them- 
selves to two diverse sets of stimuli. Where, instead of the 
green cloth with its low reflecting power, we have an area 
of shadow, the restful effect is the same, and for the same 
reason. One cause of the popularity of the student lamp is 
that it gives a high light within a narrow area, and leaves 
the rest of the room in comfortable semi-darkness, so that 
the eye is freed from outside stimuli. 

We may properly say that whatever surfaces are to 
engage the attention of the pupil should be free from 
shadows within the area of attention: that is, the front 
blackboard at which all children look must be treated as a 
unit, because the writing or drawing for a single lesson may 
cover the entire area. When this is the case any shadows 
falling upon the blackboard will interfere with ease in read- 
ing, and care must be taken to see that the illumination 
is spread evenly over the entire surface. 

Contrasts. As a corollary of the preceding discussion it 
becomes evident that sharp contrasts must be avoided 
wherever possible within the attention area. Many sharp 
contrasts, such as white chalk on black slate, black ink on 
white paper, and the like, are necessary for the conduct of 
our classes. It is all the more essential, therefore, that sharp 
contrasts which are not necessary be most carefully elim- 
inated. For example, glistening white maps should be 
rolled up during the arithmetic lesson. Bookracks, calen- 
dars, and inkwells of polished brass should either be re- 
moved from the teacher's desk or hidden from the sight 
of the pupils. Exhibits of children's work, in the form of 
drawmgs, paper-cutting, or compositions, should not be 



80 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

placed along the front blackboard, because they form too 
sharp a contrast to the board beneath. If they are placed 
along the side or back of the room, they can be examined 
from time to time without being constantly faced and thus 
contributing to eye-strain. 

Care should also be taken to remove from the walls, floor, 
and ceiling any surfaces which tend to distract the eye. 
Any bright object on the edge of the field of vision may 
cause uneasiness by stimulating the eye unduly. A shiny 
metal fixture on the window curtain slightly behind his 
shoulder may cause the reader to start with the unpleasant 
sensation of something about to strike him or fall upon him. 
The brain is peculiarly alert to give warning of bright or 
moving objects, and if attention is to be concentrated upon 
a given work area all diverting stimuli outside this field 
should be avoided. 

Kerosene. There are many people who feel that the old- 
fashioned kerosene-oil lamp is superior to any other form of 
lighting. They admit that it is a nuisance to clean and fill, 
that it gives out large amounts of heat, is apt to smoke, and 
is a frequent cause of serious fires; but they claim that in 
spite of all these disadvantages it retains superiority because 
of its soft yellow light which is pleasant and restful to work 
by and does not strain the eye muscles. It is probably true 
that the oil flame is much less trying than unshaded gas or 
electric light, but there is no excuse for providing unshaded 
or undiffused light of any sort, and the dangers of kerosene 
lighting are so numerous that it should be prohibited for 
public buildings. 

The kerosene-oil lamp gives out a great deal of heat, and 
uses up large amounts of oxygen. People who habitually 
use this method of lighting are so accustomed to it that they 
are hardly aware of its evil effects. City people, however, 
who return to the old homestead for the Christmas holidays. 



ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING 81 

and are given a portable oil heater to warm their bedrooms 
into some semblance of steam-heated apartments, find that, 
although the heat pours out with incredible rapidity, the 
air soon becomes so stifling that if headaches are to be 
avoided windows must be thrown open and fresh supplies 
of frosty air allowed to enter. Even with windows open the 
room is filled with the peculiar odor of burning kerosene, and 
not infrequently the flame climbs higher and higher until, 
with scarcely any warning, a dense column of black smoke 
pours upwards toward the ceiling. The stove rarely does 
explode, but it always looks as if it were going to. Oil lamps 
are fully as dangerous as oil heaters; they have long ago 
been discarded in city schools, and should no longer be 
tolerated in school buildings of rural communities. 

The increased number of electric companies with their 
radiating interurban lines afford electric light to up-to-date 
farmers, and many schoolhouses could be connected with 
such circuits. Many parts of the country have local supplies 
of natural gas which could be used in the rural school; and 
when neither gas nor electricity is available the acetylene 
arc lamp will be found markedly superior to the kerosene 
flame. 

Acetylene gas. Acetylene gas is produced by bringing 
calcium carbide in contact with water, and thus liberating 
the carbon which joins with the hydrogen of the water and 
forms gas. One pound of calcium carbide yields about five 
cubic feet of gas. The light given off by an acetylene lamp 
is nearer the quality of sunlight than any other artificial 
illuminant. The human eye has been adapting itself to 
sunlight for many thousands of years, and naturally can do 
its work better in a sunlit room than in any other. Illum- 
inating engineers, knowing this, have long sought to procure 
some form of artificial illumination which should approach 
in color and quality the sun's rays; and, while they are not 



82 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

yet satisfied, they have found that acetylene gas comes 
nearer to meeting this demand than any other artificial 
light. 

The illuminating power of acetylene is ten times that of 
city gas. A. C. Morrison, in the Scientific American, says: 
"Reduced to practical figures, a half -foot burner supplied 
by acetylene will give greater illumination than a five-foot 
burner supplied by city gas." The cost is not excessive. 
A plant with a fifty-light capacity can be installed for two 
hundred dollars. The carbide can be otained at about 
four cents a pound. One pound of calcium carbide yields 
about five cubic feet of gas, so that one thousand cubic feet 
of gas costs about eight" dollars. In terms of illumination 
one thousand cubic feet of acetylene at eight dollars equals 
ten thousand cubic feet of city gas at eighty cents per one 
thousand cubic feet, which is, of course, cheap illumination. 

Many people will hesitate about installing an acetylene 
plant on the ground that it is exceedingly dangerous. In 
fact there are certain districts where local regulations pro- 
hibit its use. As a matter of fact, great strides have been 
made since the days when acetylene generators were first 
placed on the market, and they have now been rendered 
so safe that the National Board of Fire Insurance Under- 
writers has drawn up regulations whereby plants may be 
installed in the basements of buildings carrying insurance, 
without increasing the rate. 

Installing an acetylene plant. The generator must be 
cared for properly. Its care is less than that necessary for 
a kerosene lamp, its efficiency is much greater, and its use 
should always be insisted upon in lighting a schoolroom 
where gas and electricity are not available. In erecting the 
acetylene apparatus a solid foundation of brick, stone, con- 
crete, or heavy timbers should be used. The machine must 
be set level, to obviate any strain on generator or connee- 



ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING 83 

tions. Each generator should be provided with an escape 
or rehef pipe, not less than three quarters of an inch inside 
diameter, and carried outside the building to a point remote 
from the windows, and at least twelve feet above the ground. 
The opening of this pipe should be protected by a hood. 
Generators may be installed where running water is not 
available. 

The machine should have a capacity sufficient to furnish 
gas continuously for a lighting period of at least five hours. 
The recharging of a generator is an operation which occu- 
pies on an average ten or fifteen minutes, according to the 
size of the generator and the number of lights. It can be 
conservatively estimated that a generator has to be re- 
charged once in three to six weeks. In determining charges, 
lump carbide should be estimated as capable of producing 
about five cubic feet of gas per pound, and burners should 
be considered as requiring at least twenty -five per cent more 
than their rated consumption of gas. 

No pet-cocks should be used in piping, and all piping 
should be arranged to drain any moisture back into the 
generator. The following schedule of piping is recom- 
mended : — 

Three-eigliths-inch pipe, twenty-six feet, three burners. 
One-half-inch pipe, thirty feet, six burners. 
Three-fourths-inch pipe, fifty feet, twenty burners. 

All piping should be tested after installing. 

We have gone at some length into the question of acety- 
lene lighting, because where the acetylene system is used 
gas must be generated in or near the building, and the school 
authorities must be responsible for running the plant. 
Where gas or electricity are used most of the work of gen- 
erating power, installing fixtures, and inspecting falls upon 
other shoulders than those of the school men. 
^ Direct lighting. By direct lighting is meant that system 



84 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

in which light rays are thrown directly upon the object to 
be illuminated. This is the most common form of lighting, 
and by many people is considered superior to the newer 
methods of semi-direct or indirect lighting. In direct light- 
ing lamps should be above the oblique plane subtended 
from the eyes of the pupils in the back row to a horizontal 
line two feet above the top of the blackboard. Instead of 
being arranged in symmetrical rows down the center and 
haKway across the ceiling on each side, fixtures should be 
placed a foot or more to the left, so that the light falls more 
strongly from the left side of the room, and should be 
"staggered," which means placing lamps diagonally across 
from each other instead of directly opposite. Every fixture 
should be equipped with glass shades designed to secure 
wide diffusion of light and prevent glare. 

Laboratories, art-rooms, and other rooms in which there 
is no need for group discussion, and where each member of 
the class works by himself, may frequently be lighted to 
good effect by drop lamps suspended above the desks. Where 
this is done the lamp should hang slightly to the left of the 
desk, and should be fitted with an opaque shade which 
will prevent the light shining into the eyes of other pupils. 
Electric bulbs used in drop lights should be frosted. 

Indirect lighting. This plan throws the light upon a 
highly reflecting surface which diffuses it throughout the 
room. It effectually prevents direct rays from striking the 
eye. The lights are usually placed in an opaque bowl 
which is suspended from the ceiling. A reflecting surface 
is secured either by suspending a polished plate above the 
bowl or by painting the ceiling itself white, so that it casts 
down into the room the rays which are thrown against it 
from the lamps. Sometimes good effects are secured by 
placing rows of lights around the walls or in the ceiling in 
such a way that they are hidden from the eyes of those 



ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING 85 

below by ornamental mouldings. This method is coming 
rapidly into favor for lighting school auditoriums. 

There are many objections to be urged against indirect 
systems of illumination. For example, as was noted previ- 
ously in the discussion of intensity and contrast, it is less 
tiring to work over an illuminated surface if the surround- 
ing surfaces are somewhat darker than where the same 
intensity prevails. In many ofl&ces where approved systems 
of indirect lighting have been installed, it will be found — 
provided sufficient funds are at the disposal of the office 
workers — that desk after desk is provided with a supple- 
mentary portable desk-lamp because the indirect overhead 
illumination does not seem to the occupants sufficient for 
their needs. As a matter of fact, actual tests in most of 
these offices would show an ample number of foot candles 
in every part of the room. A possible explanation of the 
difficulty may be that the illumination of the working sur- 
face is sufficient, but the illumination of surrounding sur- 
faces is too intense and is unrelieved by shadows. Normal 
sunlight casts shadows, and the eye has become accustomed 
to concentrate its attention upon the most highly illumi- 
nated areas, while relieved from equally intense stimuli 
without the area by shadows and varying colors. Indirect 
illumination gives the same intensity of light in all parts of 
the room, the absence of shadows is both wearying to the 
eye and possesses a somewhat weird appearance, and as a 
result the occupants are frequently uncomfortable. This cu- 
rious physical and psychological effect is much less notice- 
able where people are talking or listening than in rooms 
where the occupants are busy with individual pieces of 
work requiring close use of the eyes. It is very probably 
true that indirect lighting will find its chief usefulness in 
illuminating churches, theaters, and auditoriums. 

Semi-indirect lighting. It is here sought to secure the ad- 



86 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

vantages of direct and indirect lighting and to avoid the 
disadvantages of each. Semi-indirect lighting is a plan 
whereby the lights are placed in a bowl and reflected from 
above, as in the indirect, but the bowl is made of trans- 
lucent material, and some of the light shines through. In 
semi-indirect lighting shadows are more noticeable, and the 
effect seems somewhat more pleasant. 

QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 

1. What sort of lighting is best for schools operated on the one-session 
plan? 

2. What instruments are used for measuring light? Compare as to prin- 
ciple involved, simplicity, applicability to school conditions, cost. 

3. How many foot candles are necessary for good illumination? Does 
this apply to all types of work? Should light be measured near window, 
at center of room, farthest corner? On bright day, average, or dark? 
Winter or summer? Why? 

4. Does the location of windows on one, two, or three sides afifect the 
rules for classroom width? How? 

5. In one school system left and front lighting was chosen in preference 
to right and back. How would you undertake to argue this case? 

6. Make a study of different types of windows; noting the advantages and 
disadvantages of each. 

7. Visit school buildings on bright days and note the adjustment of win- 
dow shades. How far does supplying the right sort of shade insure 
good lighting day by day in the classroom? 

8. What are the more common methods of gas and electric lighting? 
Compare. 

9. If plants are to be grown in classrooms, where should they be placed? 
Are window boxes or hanging plants the more desirable? 

10. If you are not already familiar with the plan, visit any buildings (fac- 
tories, schools, and the like) in your vicinity, which are equipped with 
overhead saw-tooth lighting. Note differences from ordmary side 
lighting. 

11. How often should prism glass be cleaned? Why? 

12. If acetylene gas gives so satisfactory a light, why is it not generally 
recommended for city school buildings? 



ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING 87 



SELECTED REFERENCES 

Ayres, Leonard P. Public Schools of Springfield, Illinois. Division of 
Education, Russell Sage Foundation, New York. (1914.) 

Interesting report on illumination tests. 
Bruce, W. G. School Architecture. (Milwaukee, 1910.) 

Brief discussion of the subject of lighting. 

Burgerstein, Leo. School Hygiene. Translated by B. L. Stevenson and A. 
L. Von der Osten. F. A. Stokes Company, New York. (1915.) 

Several short sections of value. 

Dresslar, Fletcher B. "The School Plant"; in Report of PoHland School 
Survey. (Portland, Oregon, 1913.) 
Good section on lighting. 

Dresslar, Fletcher B. School Hygiene. The Macmillan Company, New 
York. (1913.) 
Good chapter on the lighting of schoolhouses. 

Rowe, S. H. The Lighting of Schoolrooms. Longmans, Green & Company, 
New York. (1904.) 
Rather out-of-date, but still exceedingly useful. 

Terman, L. M. Chapter on "Buildings"; in the Salt Lake City School 
Survey. (1915.) 
Interesting discussion of lighting. 



CHAPTER VI 

WATER SUPPLY 

Every school needs a bountiful supply of good water. 
City schools are obliged to depend upon the municipal water 
system, and if the water contains impurities schools can do 
little except complain to the authorities and arouse protests 
among doctors and parents. Practically no system of arti- 
ficial filtration on the premises can be relied on to purify 
infected water; and in localities where the supply is danger- 
ously bad, recourse must be had either to bottled water, 
brought from sources known to be pure, or to the regular 
city water boiled and afterwards chilled. For the large city 
school such a proceeding is well-nigh impossible, and the 
school lies at the mercy of the city authorities. Fortunately 
public health boards are now thoroughly awake to the 
perils of impure drinking-water, and most cities are under 
constant and careful supervision. It is the country children 
who are exposed to the most serious dangers of infection 
from this source. 

Springs and wells. Most country schools obtain their 
supply of drinking-water from springs or wells on the 
premises, or on adjoining farms. All such water has origi- 
nally fallen on the surface as rain or snow, gradually trickled 
down into the earth, and reached a pocket in the ground 
where it has accumulated in the form of a small underground 
stream. Where this stream breaks forth at a lower point of 
the earth's surface it is called a spring. Where it is tapped 
by digging or boring it is called a well. Springs are apt to 
find their water channels much nearer to the earth's surface 
than wells, and the chances that the surface water has been 



WATER SUPPLY 89 

thoroughly filtered are correspondingly less. Springs which 
are near swampy ground are very frequently contaminated. 
Whenever they are in low places near barnyards or pastures 
the chances are large that the water will be heavily laden 
with particles of decomposing manure and other farmyard 
waste. 

Where springs have their outlet in open pools it will be 
found that, unless great care is taken to prevent animals and 
human beings from making free with the water, the pool be- 
comes quickly laden with impurities. In the same way wells 
sometimes receive the greater part of their water from the 
drainings of privies, barnyards, and the like. There seems 
to be a tendency among country people to feel that water 
which comes up out of the earth must be purer than that 
which flows upon its surface. Sometimes they are right; but 
frequently they are perilously wrong. The quality of water 
in spring and well depends largely upon the geological for- 
mation of the ground around it. For example, sandy loam 
permits of free ventilation and acts as a natural filter, but 
clay or rock is like a huge drain pipe which conserves all the 
impurities of the water, and may carry them for miles. In 
planning where to sink a well, therefore, it is necessary to 
learn something about the formation of the soil in that 
region. It is always safe to lay down the rule that no water 
shall be used which comes fiom a lower level than a barn, 
privy, or other contaminating agent. Observance of this 
rule will not insure clean water, but neglect will result in an 
impure water supply nine chances out of ten. 

Carrying water by hand. Water may be brought to the 
school by pipes from a reservoir, by hand or machine pumps, 
or by being carried in pails. The rural school should never 
rely on having water fetched in small quantities, unless there 
is actually no other means of securing it. When this is un- 
fortunately the case, large buckets should be secured, of gal- 



90 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

vanized iron, with tops which can be fastened securely in 
place. Arrangements should be made with a responsible 
agent whereby these buckets are filled with fresh water daily 
and delivered at the school. On days when the school is not 
in session these buckets should be carefully cleaned and 
exposed to the full glare of the sun. It is important that the 
old method of sending two of the boys each morning with 
a wooden pail to the neighboring well for water should be 
abolished, for under such circumstances half the supply is 
spilled before the school is reached, the pails are uncovered 
and often dirty, and the water is frequently contaminated. 
With pails small enough so that they can be carried for some 
distance by the growing boy, the water rapidly becomes 
warm and uninviting; and, in addition, the supply is so 
small that children are usually discouraged from using it 
freely to wash their hands and faces. 

The school well. A well on the school grounds is almost 
always preferable to a spring or to the offices of kindly neigh- 
bors. If due care is taken to locate the well properly, and to 
make it impervious to surface infiltration, the water can 
be kept sweet and pure throughout the summer months — 
when many claim school wells deteriorate because they are 
not being used — and a satisfactory water supply will be ob- 
tained for all school purposes. This means, however, that 
the well must be constructed with greater care than is usu- 
ally exercised. A dug well can be made safe; but to do so is 
expensive, for it must b^ deep enough to reach below the 
line of surface infiltration, must be securely covered, and 
the casing made water-tight down to the lowest water-line. 
A driven well can usually be sunk much deeper, so that the 
opportunities for filtering water before it reaches the well are 
greater; and it is very easy to protect the sides from surface 
drainage. A driven well is frequently materially less expen- 
sive than a properly constructed dug well, and is, therefore, 



WATER SUPPLY 91 

to be preferred for school purposes. Sometimes a driven well 
may be bored through a hard layer of clay or rock, into a 
water-course sealed up below it. In such cases the source of 
the water is usually not near the school building, but may 
come from a spot several miles away. No matter whether 
the well be dug or driven, it must be remembered that if 
the water which supplies it comes from a contaminated 
source no skill in construction will render it safe. A good 
well conserves purity, but does not make it. 

Every well should be covered at the top. There is some- 
thing about the open well which is peculiarly tempting, and 
each child who passes feels the necessity of flinging down a 
stone or stick to hear it strike. Apple cores, rotten tomatoes, 
and even small dead animals find the uncovered well a 
handy receptacle; and every such offering adds to the im- 
purity of the water. The well should be provided with a 
cement top which keeps out dirt and, when desirable, fur- 
nishes a platform for a force pump by which water may be 
drawn to the surface. A small pressure tank can easily be 
attached to the pump, so that water is always at hand for 
a bubbling fountain. Provision should also be made for 
carrying off the waste water by pipes so that it can neither 
flow back into the well nor dampen the surrounding earth, 
and so render it unfit to walk on. 

Water pressure. It is exceedingly desirable that every 
school be supplied with water under pressure. City schools 
usually have no trouble here, but there are very few country 
schools which are so equipped. Water pressure makes pos- 
sible indoor sanitary toilets, which are greatly needed in the 
country. It also provides plentiful opportunity for washing 
hands and faces, for keeping drinking-water fresh and cool, 
for use in cooking, and even for the shower bath which is 
coming to be a necessary part of rural-school equipment. In 
addition a bountiful water supply under pressure is one of 



92 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

the safest provisions against fire. Every rural school not 
otherwise supplied with water under pressure should be pro- 
vided with a tank or reservoir at a considerable height, to 
which water can be pumped by windmill, gasoline engine, or 
some other motive power, and from which pipes distrib- 
ute the water, as needed, to various parts of the building. 
Another form, used in very cold countries, is what is known 
as the "Kewanee system," by means of which a galvanized 
iron tank is buried in the ground beneath the school build- 
ing, and the water put into the tank under pressure by 
means of a gasoline engine, also in the basement of the 
school. 

The mdividual cup. Seven years ago not a State in the 
Union had passed a legislative enactment against the com- 
mon drinking-cup. To-day over half the States have laws 
or regulations against it, and more are added every year. 
Within half a decade we have seen the passing of the tin 
cup fastened by a chain in the railroad car, the depot, and 
the department store, and the introduction of the col- 
lapsible paper cup. At first the public schools sought to 
supplant the common drinking-cup by individual glasses, 
brought from home and labeled with the child's name; but 
it was speedily found that children have little fear of germs 
and are generous with their possessions, so that it was con- 
sidered a mark of friendship to exchange cups. The paper 
cup, to be used once and then discarded, was fairly satis- 
factory, but involved some expense, and the discarded cups 
were apt to make an untidy appearance. Finally various 
types of bubbling fountains — previously used in parks and 
outdoor playgrounds — were adapted to school uses. Now 
the bubbling fountain has become a standard piece of school- 
house equipment. 

Bubbling fountains. In large schools a fountain should 
be placed on each floor of the building, in the basement. 



WATER SUPPLY 93 

and in the playground. Playground fountains should be 
disconnected during freezing weather. There should be at 
least one fountain installed for every seventy children in 
attendance, and a better standard is one for every forty 
children. The bubbling fountain should present a stream 
two inches high, and be so arranged that waste water is 
carried off without mixing with the fresh. It should be pro- 
tected by a frame which prevents the mouth from coming 
in contact with the outlet, but care should be taken to 
make this frame in such a way that children will not run 
any danger of breaking their teeth upon it. There is some- 
thing so peculiarly helpless in the appearance of another 
person bending over a drinking fountain that most normal 
children, and some adults, are filled with a sudden strong 
desire to push the drinker's head down into the water. If 
the fountain is not designed to protect the child against just 
such accidents painful injuries may sometimes result. 

Another tendency against which precautions should be 
taken is that which children have of covering up several 
holes in a battery of fountains in order to concentrate water 
pressure on one, and so produce a high forceful stream. If 
such a result can be produced at the moment when a com- 
panion is bending over in the act of drinking the victim is 
sure to receive a drenching. Most of the newer fountains 
are so arranged that any such manipulation of water is out 
of the question. 

The fountain should be made of porcelain, nickel, or 
some other substance which is well protected against rust 
or corrosion; and should be simple in design, so that it will 
not get out of order. The key which turns on the water 
should be plainly visible and easy in action, so that children 
can work it without having to use both hands. Some sim- 
ple device should be attached for regulating the size of 
the stream. The pipe which carries off waste water should 



94 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

be so arranged that it will not readily become clogged with 
paper, twine, or other refuse. 

Home-made foimtains. Dr. Dresslar suggests that in 
schools where the standard manufactured bubbling foun- 
tains seem too expensive, it is possible to make a fairly good 
substitute by connecting the main service pipe, at the middle 
point of a horizontal length of nickel-covered water pipe, 
and closing both ends. Small holes should then be pierced, 
about thirty inches apart, along the length of this pipe, each 
slightly toward the front so that a stream of water passing 
through would not fall back into its own hole. A key should 
control the stream. Below the bubblers should be placed a 
sink or basin to carry away the waste water. These bubblers 
bring the children rather close together, so that disturbances 
are likely to follow, and they are so constructed that water 
may be squirted in long streams by manipulating the open- 
ings. Mol'cover, there is no means of insuring that children 
will not place their mouths directly in contact with the 
pipe. The fountains so constructed are distinctly inferior to 
many designs on the market, and should only be installed 
where others cannot be procured. 

Cooler attachments. For rural schools without water 
pressure, bubbling fountains may be secured to fit on small 
tanks or coolers. The rules covering their construction are 
the same as those for pressure systems; except that while 
in the latter cases fountains are allowed to run all the time 
during certain periods, — for example, at recess, — where the 
supply of water is limited as in the former case, the fountain 
should close automatically as soon as the child finishes drinking. 

Height of fountains. A common fault in installing drink- 
ing-fountains is to make them either too high or too low. 
Primary children sometimes have to be lifted up in order to 
drink, while tall high-school students are made to feel un- 
necessarily awkward by fountains which would be just the 



WATER SUPPLY 95 

right height for their Httle brothers or sisters. A series of 
simple experiments is needed to determine standards for 
heights of fountains, such as have already been determined 
for the placing of blackboards. 

The habit of cleanliness. Space is given in the next chap- 
ter to the reasons why facilities for washing the hands 
should be provided in connection with every toilet-room. 
The habit of cleanliness can only be established through 
giving children a clear understanding of why it is desirable, 
and then seeing to it that washing actually takes place. 
Mere supervision and enforcement of the rule will be of 
comparatively little value unless it is connected with a 
hygienic attitude of mind; and one of the most important 
tasks of the health department in the public school system is 
to establish such an attitude through careful and effective 
teaching. As an aid to such teaching, every school should 
be provided with equipment so that lessons learned may be 
put into practice. 

Lavatories. Few definite standards have as yet been 
evolved concerning the number and location of lavatories. 
Children's* hands become dirty while on the playground, 
while using chalk at the blackboard, handling books, writing 
with ink, working in the shops or gymnasium, and the like. 
They should be encouraged to wash their hands whenever 
they are dirty, and if they are to eat lunch at school washing 
the hands before entering the lunchroom should be insisted 
upon. If such a plan is to be carried out, however, it becomes 
essential that adequate washing facilities be provided and 
situated where they may be reached quickly, so that chil- 
dren will feel free to use them and time will not be lost away 
from the classroom. While most school men are theoretically 
in agreement with this principle, actually there are few 
schools in the United States built and equipped in such a 
manner that it can readily be put into practice. 



06 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

In many schools the only washing facilities are in the 
basement. Wash-basins are certainly needed both for chil- 
dren coming from the toilet and for those on the playground; 
but if the only washbowls are in the basement children will 
rarely use them for removing the dirt of the classroom. In 
some parts of England and the United States wash-basins 
with hot water are placed in every dressing-room. More 
frequently in this country they are placed on each floor in 
the hallway, or in a small room set aside for that purpose. 
The second method makes for simpler plumbing, but prob- 
ably means that water will be used less freely. In a few 
cases wash-basins are supplied as part of the regular room 
furnishings. It is fairly common for special washing arrange- 
ments to be provided for children in the open-air classes, 
so that they may wash the hands before eating, but there 
is rarely any similar provision for normal children who 
patronize the school lunch, even though the practice of 
eating with dirty hands is widespread and distinctly dan- 
gerous. 

Wash-basins should always be installed in rooms where 
special cleanhness is desired — such as sewing-rooms, or 
where dirty work is being carried on, as, for instance, in 
forge-rooms, printing-rooms, gymnasiums, and the like. 
They should also be part of the equipment of the doctor's 
oflfice, teacher's rest-room, and kindergarten. In England, 
according to Burgerstein's account, one wash-basin is pro- 
vided for every twenty-five children. In the United States 
each basin is frequently expected to accommodate several 
hundred children. The installation of a basin in every dress- 
ing-room, or a washroom with a battery of basins on every 
floor, would involve heavy expense, but the returns in im- 
proved health and better habits would speedily justify the 
investment. 

Hot water. Lavatories should be supplied with hot water 



WATER SUPPLY 97 

as well as cold. This at once implies some means of heating 
water in connection with the regular heating-plant. Cold 
water is better than none, but it is ineffective in removing 
dirt, and in winter children will often refrain from washing 
at all rather than plunge the hands into very cold water. 

Soap. A good quality of liquid or powdered soap, in con- 
tainers devised to prevent spilling and waste, should be 
provided over every basin. Soap may be brought from home 
by individual children, but the cakes are apt to get lost, be 
lent from one child to another, fall on the floor, and gener- 
ally prove unsatisfactory. Care should be taken in selecting 
liquid soap to choose a brand which will not irritate the 
skin. 

Towels. Individual towels may be brought from home 
by the children or may be supplied by the school. In the 
latter case they should be thoroughly washed and sterilized 
before being given to new children. Some schools supply 
each child with a fresh towel once a week, and have strict 
rules against exchanging towels between friends. Paper 
towels which are used once and then destroyed are rapidly 
coming into use. When first introduced they were rather 
expensive, but the price is coming within the reach of school 
boards; and it is probable that before long they will have 
largely supplanted cotton or linen towels. Large bins should 
be provided for catching the discarded paper towels, because, 
since they are rather bulky, they rapidly litter the floor and 
evoke bitter complaints from the janitor. 

Baths as punishments. Bathing is such a primitive need 
of the body that increased facilities for its performance 
mean always increased health. It is rather astonishing that 
such slow progress has been made in the United States 
in providing baths for school children. A few cities sup- 
ply showers or pools in their newer buildings, but rarely 
are there fixtures enough to provide frequent baths for all 



98 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

or even most of the children enrolled. In many places the 
school bath is regarded as something rather like a disciplin- 
ary measure. The teacher inspects the children, and upon 
detecting evidences of uncleanliness orders the culprit to 
the showers; so that the idea of bathing is forcibly linked in 
the minds of the pupils with the idea of punishment. Few 
better methods could be devised for making children wish to 
remain unclean. 

Group showers. The school showers should be regarded 
as one of the most important and delightful of school posses- 
sions. The children should be made to feel that bathing is 
a privilege, and that they are more fortunate than the pupils 
in less modern buildings who have to do without. Bathing- 
rooms should be made as attractive as possible, well ven- 
tilated and flooded with sunlight, and large enough to accom- 
modate entire classes at one time. The cheapest form of 
sanitary shower is the German type, in which fixtures are 
placed above large pools of water about a foot deep, which 
are built in the cement floor. Children are turned into these 
pools in groups of twenty or thirty, are supplied with cakes 
of soap, and after they have carried on a preliminary scrub- 
bing with the water already in the pool the showers over- 
head give them a thorough rinsing. The pool water is warm; 
the showers are warm, gradually turning to cold. When 
girls bathe in this way their hair should be protected by 
rubber caps, or by towels worn turban fashion. 

Another form of the group shower does away with the 
scrubbing-pools, and merely has the children stand on a 
cement floor, which slopes toward drains at the center. If 
the cement floor becomes slippery it is often necessary to 
provide a flooring of wooden slats in order to prevent falling. 
In most cases the group shower can be used successfully 
with boys, but is not advisable for girls. Even with the 
younger girls parents are usually so averse to the idea of 



WATER SUPPLY 99 

group bathing that school people will find that any such 
suggestion arouses strong opposition. Showers for girls 
should be placed in booths or separated from the rest of the 
room by curtains. Fixtures should be so adjusted that the 
spray is shot from the side, rather than from above. It is 
very difficult to prevent girls' hair from getting wet in an 
overhead shower, and such an arrangement is sure to be 
unpopular. 

Dressing-rooms. Where the system of ventilation is such 
that steam is rapidly carried away, dressing-rooms should be 
built close to the showers; but where the air is damp the 
outdoor clothing sometimes becomes filled with moisture, 
and serious colds may result. Where dressing-rooms are at 
a distance from the showers, sheets should be provided for 
girls to wrap about themselves while walking back and forth. 
A simple arrangement of dressing-booths and shower is 
installed in several of the Cleveland schools, where one 
shower and four booths, each furnished with a seat, are 
designed to form a complete square. 

Rural bathing. Some form of shower bath should be in- 
stalled in every school and in sufficient numbers to provide 
for every child in the building a bath every week. In rural 
schools supplied with water under pressure baths may read- 
ily be installed, and hot water secured by a hot-water tank 
connected with furnace, stove, or separate heater. Even 
without a pressure tank water may be pumped by hand into 
an overhead reservoir with shower connection. One of the 
reasons why the country child makes such a poor showing 
in the medical inspection reports is, that in many districts 
country people regard bathing as an unnecessary luxury 
intended for babies, invalids, and summer visitors. Many 
respectable city dwellers, who are rendered wretchedly un- 
comfortable without the daily bath, spent their early days 
on farms where the only reason for washing was to remove 



100 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

dirt from face, hands, and neck, — the parts of the body which 
showed, — because with them and their neighbors cleanhness 
was a matter of looks, and had httle to do with good health. 

In the ordinary farmhouse, where water is pumped from 
the well and heated in tea-kettle and boiler on top of the 
kitchen stove, it is a serious undertaking to provide baths 
for a large family. The city dweller himself would find that 
if the family washtubs had to be carried into the kitchen 
and filled and emptied by hand, even a weekly bath would 
tend to disappear. There is no need for the farmhouse to be 
lacking, as it so often is, in the simple sanitary equipment 
which makes for cleanly living, but years of education must 
ensue before the farmer desires cleanliness enough to work 
for it, and pending that time the country school must care 
for the bathing needs of its children. 

Tubs and pools. It is unwise to install tubs in school 
buildings or other places of public resort because, to make 
them safe, requires sterilization after each use; they take 
up too much room; are expensive to purchase; and are less 
refreshing than the shower bath. If soap is provided, dirt 
may be removed under the shower as easily as in the tub. 

Many high schools and a few elementary schools in the 
United States are equipped with swimming-pools. They 
should not be used for purposes of cleaning the body; in 
fact, shower baths should be supplied and their use insisted 
upon before swimmers are allowed to enter the water. The 
pool is of value chiefly because it provides good sport, prac- 
tice in group activity, physical exercise, and opportunity 
to learn how to swim. From the educational viewpoint the 
swimming-pool is a good investment. 

Construction of pools. The location chosen is usually in 
the basement, on the south or east side where good lighting 
can be secured. The pool should be about seventy-five feet 
long (so as to provide for the twenty-five-yard dash) and 



WATER SUPPLY 101 

twenty or twenty-five feet wide. The depth varies for differ- 
ent uses, but should be at least seven feet at one end and 
two and one-half feet at the other. The bed and retaining 
walls should be of concrete, lined with asphalt, and provided 
with an inner lining of cement or brick, with wall ties to 
bind the enameled brick facing. This interior facing should 
be glazed, without cracks or roughness, and set with rounded 
corners, so that it can be kept scrupulously clean. A light- 
colored surface makes for cleanliness, and is the best back- 
ground for the black lines which should run the length of 
the pool, on the bottom, for guidance in speed swimming. 
Square ends are necessary if swimming meets are to be held. 

A life rail should be set level on the top course of brick, 
and a scum trough placed below, just at the water level. 
The waves made by the swimmers will then carry scum 
formed into the drain pipe. In some pools cuspidor attach- 
ment is made with the life rail. Swimming often causes one 
to raise mucus, and if cuspidor is not at hand the swimmer 
will expectorate and so defile the water. At each end of the 
pool steps should be built into the side wall to take the place 
of the ladder usually placed there. The depth of the water 
should be clearly marked on the sides and bottom. A spring- 
board and a diving-stand are desirable additions to the equip- 
ment of the pool. 

Keeping the water pure. Objections are frequently raised 
to public swimming-pools because of the danger of infection 
resulting from many persons bathing together in polluted 
water. That the fear is justified is shown by experiments 
such as those quoted by Bunker and Whipple. " It was found 
that washing a dirty male hospital patient yielded twenty- 
five thousand milhon bacteria; that a smooth-skinned * clean' 
man gave three thousand million, as against fourteen thousand 
million from a hairy-skinned individual. The feet of a boy in 
the corridor, about to enter the pool, yielded eighty million." 



102 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

When swimming-pools were first introduced there was 
grave fear of transmitting disease, and many experiments 
were carried on to find means of overcoming the danger. 
As a result, it has been found that pools may be made safe 
by a combination of refiltration and doses of hypochlorite 
of lime. Arthur N. Crane, in the Proceedings of the American 
Association for Promoting Hygienic and Public Baths says, 
in discussing refiltration: "However, it is only fair to point 
out that while many of the reports from pools where refil- 
tration only is employed indicate high bacteriological effi- 
ciency, this cannot reasonably be expected so confidently 
as if the hypochlorite of lime treatment also were used, 
Wliile it is quite possible to operate a mechanical filter so 
as to deliver at the outlet of the filter a water pure to the 
degree demanded by health authorities for drinking-water, 
and a pool could therefore be filled with pure water, yet the 
first individual entering it would contaminate it, and while 
the filter could always be operated so that the water would 
always be pure, the full effect of this would be lost so soon 
as the water mixed with other water in the pool which had 
already been contaminated.'* He goes on to explain the 
desirability of the hypochlorite of lime treatment. Ordinary 
commercial hypochlorite of lime contains about thirty per 
cent of available chlorine. It is this nascent chlorine which 
acts to kill the bacteria. One pound of the hypochlorite will 
treat satisfactorily a one hundred thousand gallon pool, and 
since the lime only costs two cents per pound the annual 
bill for this preventive will be only about $7.30. 

Refiltration is even less expensive. Reports show that it 
takes on an average two tons of coal to heat a one hundred 
thousand gallon pool to a temperature of between 70° and 
75° F. In addition, water itself in most communities is 
rather expensive. If this water is used over and over again, 
freshly filtered each time, — and never allowed to lose much 



WATER SUPPLY 103 

of its heat, the result is a decided money-saving. Refiltra- 
tion, combined with dosing of hypochlorite of lime, procures 
a constant supply of fresh water emptying into the pool, 
and a continuous purification of the water already contained 
there, so that dangers of infection are reduced to a minimum. 
Rules and regulations for pools. In boys' and men's pools 
no clothing, or at most nothing more than a pair of bathing- 
trunks, should be worn. A cleansing shower of hot water 
and soap should always precede the plunge. In girls' and 
women's pools the clothing should be a single-piece swim- 
ming-suit, similar to men's trunks and jerseys; it should 
be sterilized after each using and kept in the building by 
attendants. Girls and women should be obliged to remove 
suits and hang them over the door before taking the cleans- 
ing shower. The following rules and regulations will be 
found needful in the administration of swimming-pools: — 

1. Maintain the water in the pool pure and clear by employing 
refiltration and hypochlorite of lime. 

2. Have the pool well lighted by sunlight during the day, and 
by artificial lights at night. 

3. Have an attendant always on duty when the pool is in use; 
grant no admission at other times, 

4. Prevent persons with any communicable disease fiom using 
the pool. Examine the heart of every person admitted. 

5. Enforce the cleansing of each bather before entering pool. 
This may be accomplished by : — 

a. Admittance to pool only through showers. 
h. Insistence that suits be taken off and thrown over door 
while women bathe. 

6. Allow no unsterilized clothing to be worn in the pool. Guard 
against stockings and undergarments worn under bathing- 
suits. Insist that all women bathers shall wear rubber caps. 

7. Provide a scum gutter around the pool ; prohibit expectoration 
in the pool. 

8. Prevent visitors from walking around the pools, and thus 
tracking in dirt. Visitors must stay in the gallery. 

9. Prohibit handkerchiefs in the water; allow no cold cream or 



104 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

powder to be put on the face before entering; prevent bathers 
with cuts, vaccinations, corn plasters, or bandages from using 
the pool. 

10. Have a long pole on either side of the pool with which to help 
persons unable to swim who go beyond their depth. 

11. Do not have any obstruction in the pool or along the edge. 
Do not allow running on the tile approach to the life rail. 

QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 

1. How should rural-school authorities determine the geological forma- 
tion of ground around the school building? Are any government 
sources of information available? 

2. When is water considered "pure" for drinking purposes? How may 
it be tested? Are any of these tests practicable for use by teachers? 

3. What is a driven well? A dug well? What are the advantages and 
disadvantages of each? 

4. Make a comparative study of drinking fountains now on the market; 
noting such points as durability, simplicity, safety, economy of water, 
cost, and the like. 

5. Secure a table showing height of school children at different ages, and 
from this determine how high drinking-fountains should be made for 
various types of schools. Should all the fountains in one building be 
of the same height? 

SELECTED REFERENCES 

American Association for Promoting Hygiene and Public Baths. Annu(d 

Report. (1913.) 
Brewer, I. W. Rural Hygiene. (Philadelphia, 1909.) 
Particularly helpful on question of water supply. 

Dresslar, Fletcher B. School Hygiene. The Macmillan Company, New 
York. (1913.) 

Gives rather full and interesting treatment of subjects here discussed. 

Mason, William P. Water Supply. Fourth edition. Wiley & Sons, New 
York. (1916.) 

Massachusetts State Board of Health. "Sanitary Control of Swimming- 
Pools"; in Annual Report. (1912.) 

Ra venal, "Hygiene of Swimming-Pools"; in Journal of American Medical 
Association, October 19, 1912. 

United States Public Health Service, Bulletin no. 57. Common Drinking 
Cups and Roller Toivels. 

Whipple George C. Value of Pure Water, Wiley & Sons, New York. (1907). 



CHAPTER VTI 

TOILETS 

T3rpical toilet-rooms. The following paragraphs, taken 
from the volume on School Buildings and Equipment of the 
Cleveland Education Survey, is a fairly accurate description 
of the toilet-rooms in most city school buildings : — 

The typical toilet-room in the elementary school is located in 
the basement. Walls are whitewashed and the floor is of cement. 
The room is lighted from one or two sides by several small windows 
near the ceiling. Down the center of the room runs a double row 
of toilets, placed back to back, and separated from each other by 
wooden partitions. Except in the newest schools there are no doors 
or screens to shield the occupants, either boys or girls. Toilets 
are of the latrine type — that is, they all empty into one large 
trough running underneath, and are flushed at regular intervals by 
a central flushing system. The body of the toilet is usually of iron, 
and the seat of wood with a wooden cover. All seats aie the same 
height from the floor, without regard to the size of the children 
for whom they are intended. 

In the boys' room urinals of metal covered with white enamel 
paint and supplied with iron bases are placed around the sides of 
the room. They are continually flushed by overflow or pierced 
pipes at the top, and are open to the room without dividing par- 
titions or screens. In over half the schools metal urinals have 
been replaced by porcelain, with glass bases of the same shape 
and flushed in the same way. Where metal urinals are used there 
is sometimes an unpleasant odor. Cement floors around latrines 
and urinals are usually discolored. 

Toilet-rooms receive little light from outside windows. Where 
latrines are ranged down the center of the room they cut off all 
sunlight and render the rooms so dark that artificial lighting is 
constantly necessary. In old buildings there are very few toilet- 
rooms in which the sunlight ever reaches the farthest corner. 

At one side of the room, against the wall, or else just outside the 
door, are placed at least one, and often four, sanitary drinking- 



106 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

fountains, and beside them four wash-basins with hot and cold 
water. In a few cases shower baths are also located in the toilet- 
room. 

Doors are of wood and frosted glass. They are in two parts, with 
a post between. One side swings out, and the other in. All rooms 
are labeled. The boys' room is usually at the opposite end of the 
building from that of the girls. Throughout the schools these rooms 
are exceptionally free from obscene writing. 

The Board of Education is speedily replacing metal urinals with 
porcelain in old buildings. In a few of the newest buildings, the 
old-style wooden seats are being replaced by wood or porcelain 
seats with open fronts, and occasionally the metal body is replaced 
by porcelain. In some buildings the stalls in the girls' toilet are 
provided with doors. 

This description held true for most of Cleveland's school 
buildings, but it should be noted that while the toilet-rooms 
in the newest schools were distinctly better, there were no 
schools in the system where conditions were shockingly bad. 
There are very few cities in the country of which the same 
thing could be said. The toilet-rooms in Cleveland needed 
improvements, but the school board was aware of the fact 
and conditions were rapidly changing. It is unfortunately 
true that in most schools, even in our largest cities, toilet- 
rooms are poorly planned, insanitary, dark, and badly 
cared-for; and very little attempt is being made to remedy 
the situation. 

Location and lighting. In most schools it is probably best 
to place large toilet-rooms in the basement, with smaller 
rooms on each floor above, or between floors on stair land- 
ings. Basement rooms should be so situated that the sec- 
tions for boys and girls are entirely separated from each 
other. Where possible the rooms should have a southern 
outlook, so that they will be bathed in sunlight during much 
of the day. Where the southern side is not available, an 
eastern frontage should be chosen. As was stated earlier, 
it is exceedingly desirable that basements should not be 



TOILETS 107 

sunk more than three feet below the grade level. One advan- 
tage gained by the shallow excavation is that plenty of sun- 
light is thereby made possible. 

At least one layer of window glass should be made so that 
it will admit light and sunshine, but will not allow objects 
to be seen through it. Certain types of wire glass are excel- 
lent for this purpose, since they admit light, are not trans- 
parent, and are so constructed as to stand very rough treat- 
ment. Where wire glass is not used it is usually desirable 
to place an iron grating or screen outside the window. It 
should be remembered, too, that schools are in session only 
a small portion of each day. Before nine in the morning 
and after four in the afternoon there is no reason why toilet- 
rooms should not be exposed to direct sunlight by sliding 
back the translucent glass windows usually used, and leaving 
the windows either entirely open or screened with a single 
thickness of clear glass panels. A little thought will suffice 
to plan toilet-rooms so that they can actually be flooded 
with sunlight for several hours each day. 

Walls, ceilings, and floors. The walls of the toilet-room 
should be white or very light-colored, so that they will 
reflect light and reveal dirt; and they should be made of 
some material which can be washed frequently, and which 
presents a surface which cannot easily be disfigured with 
knife-cuttings or pencil marks. White glazed brick or tile 
set in cement makes an excellent basement wall, and is 
not excessively expensive. The ceiling should be white, in 
a hard, smooth finish, so that it can be washed occasionally 
without harm. Toilet-room floors should not be made of 
uncoated cement, because uric acid sets up a chemical 
action which causes discoloration, and frequently gives 
the characteristic toilet-room odor. Very little can be 
done to remedy it. Good floors may be made with a ce- 
ment foundation over which is laid a layer of asphaltum. 



108 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

Asphaltum is impervious to water and uric acid, and makes 
an excellent surface for toilet-rooms. 

Floors should be provided with drains, so that they may 
be washed down with the hose; and should be slanting, so 
that the water will run off readily. It is not unusual to find 
new buildings thoroughly equipped with hose, glazed walls, 
etc., yet built without drains, so that whatever water is 
used for cleaning must either be wiped up by hand or allowed 
to evaporate. Toilet-rooms should be separated from the rest 
of the building by swinging doors, and each should be plainly 
labeled "Boys' toilet," or "Girls' toilet," as the case may be. 

Equipment per nimiber of pupils. The Ohio State Build- 
ing Code, the rules of the Indiana State Board of Health, 
and the rules of the Commissioner of Education of New York 
State require, as a minimum of accommodations for indoor 
toilets, one toilet seat for every fifteen girls, one urinal for 
every fifteen boys, and one seat for every twenty-five boys. 
Other authorities suggest one urinal for every twenty-five 
boys. In planning new buildings care should be taken to 
provide equipment or connections so that new equipment 
may be added for pupils in excess of. the number expected 
during the first year. When portables or additions to the 
main building are erected, extra toilet provision should at 
once be made. 

Location of equipment. Care should be taken in installing 
toilet equipment not to cut off light from the windows. 
It is a common thing to find a long double row of stalls down 
the center, standing so high that all the farther side of the 
room is plunged in gloom. Closets should be placed around 
the sides, with the openings facing toward the sunlight. 
Urinals may be placed in the center if they are low enough 
so as not to cut off light, but unless quarters are crowded 
the plan of placing urinals against the wall is apt to be more 
satisfactory. 




Fig. 17. Toilets 

Not the right sort of toilets for a healthful school 



TOILETS 109 

Urinals. Metal urinals covered with two or three layers 
of glazed paint are unsatisfactory, because after a compara- 
tively short time the paint wears off and the metal becomes 
corroded. Schools already equipped with metal urinals 
should have them removed as speedily as possible, and 
better types installed; otherwise the toilet-rooms will con- 
tinue to give out an unpleasant odor. Disinfectants in the 
toilet-room are a sure sign of defective installation or equip- 
ment, and should not be used. 

Urinals should be made of porcelain, marble, or glass. 
Slate is often recommended, but is inferior to the materials 
above listed because it is not entirely impervious to mois- 
ture, and because it catches and holds dirt which cannot 
be readily detected. The individual tip-bowl type of 
urinal is probably not desirable for elementary schools, 
because it gets out of order and is apt to be misused by the 
boys. Common troughs are especially objectionable, and 
should never be used. One of the most satisfactory types 
is that made by stalls with division walls deep enough to 
screen the occupants. The stalls incline forward toward 
the bottom, and are continually flushed by overflow pipes 
at the top which send a layer of water over the entire sur- 
face. Water and urine are carried off by a narrow gutter at 
the base of the stalls. The air of the toilet-room is drawn 
down over this gutter and out to the ventilating stack. 
There are now on the market urinals on a circular base with 
radiating stalls which insure greater privacy, take up less 
space, and are simpler in drainage and ventilation than the 
wall urinal. 

Latrines. The latrine is probably the simplest, cheapest, 
and most commonly installed type of water-closet. Accord- 
ing to this plan each row of closets is flushed at the same time 
by a tank at the end of the row. This makes possible a type 
of plumbing so simple that it rarely gets out of order, and is 



110 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

therefore greatly favored by school-builders. On the other 
hand, the latrine closet makes it impossible to flush one of 
the closets without flushing the rest, and as the intervals 
of flushing are automatically controlled, ten or fifteen min- 
utes must sometimes elapse before the closet is swept with 
water. It is usually possible and always desirable to regulate 
the mechanism in such a way that during recess periods 
flushing will occur at very frequent intervals. Latrines are 
frequently hard to ventilate, because of the long periods 
between flushing, and, if unpleasant odors are to be avoided, 
it is necessary to provide a very strong down draught for 
each closet. 

It is also true that where latrine closets are used it is 
difficult to regulate the height of the seat, and primary chil- 
dren frequently experience difficulty in using toilets which 
are of convenient height for eighth-grade pupils. Where 
seats cannot be lowered in old buildings, low benches or 
steps should be provided in several of the stalls, for the 
use of smaller children. 

Individual flush. Individual flush toilets are more com- 
plicated in mechanism than the latrine, but when good 
types are secured they are considerably more satisfactory. 
Such closets permit dift'erent sizes for primary and upper- 
grade children, immediate flushing whenever needed, and 
a considerable saving in water. Certain toilets are arranged 
with automatic flush operated by placing weight upon, or 
removing v/eight from, the seat. Others are dependent 
upon hand flushing by handle, knob, or chain. 

The automatic flush is desirable where absolute cleanli- 
ness is the main consideration. Voluntary flushing requires 
that the toilet-rooms be under constant and close super- 
vision, for many children are ignorant concerning the proper 
use of the toilet, and many others are careless. Because of 
this fact, and since one of the important duties of the school 



TOILETS 111 

is to train children in sanitary habits, it is claimed that the 
voluntary flushing system is necessary. Where toilets are 
automatically cleansed the child feels no responsibility and 
secures no training. The argument is probably valid, and 
the individual voluntary flush system is probably the best, 
provided — and this point should be emphasized — that 
school authorities assume full responsibility for seeing to it 
that the children are actually taught how to use it. If toilet- 
rooms are to remain under spasmodic or superficial supervi- 
sion, some form of simple automatic flush should be installed. 
Automatic flush and nerve strain. Another point con- 
cerning the flushing system is rarely mentioned in such 
discussions, but has a very real importance. All those who 
have had intimate acquaintance with small children know 
that the automatic flush is frequently a source of terror. 
The toilet used in the ordinary city home is flushed by 
hand, and country children are often unacquainted with the 
flush toilet in any form. In school, clogging of pipes with 
consequent overflowing occurs frequently enough so that 
many wild stories are circulated, and the child feels afraid 
even to enter the toilet-rooms except at recess periods when 
other children are near. Consequently, when automatic 
flushing occurs with its roaring sound and the rush of wa- 
ter and spray, nervous children become convinced that the 
toilet is about to overflow, and the idea may become so vivid 
that children will suffer for several hours rather than go alone 
to the toilet-room. Children rarely confide such imaginings 
to older people, for fear of being laughed at; but there seems 
to be no question that much unhappiness is daily caused 
in this way. The noisy, unheralded automatic flush is one 
of the chief defects in the latrine system. If an automatic 
flush is necessary it should be arranged to operate on remov- 
ing the weight from the seat, so that the €hild feels free to 
leave the stall as soon as the flow of water begins. 



112 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

Partitions. Closets should be separated by partitions 
which are impervious to moistm'e, light-colored, and diffi- 
cult to deface with pencil or knife markings. Porcelain, 
marble, or glass are the best materials for such partitions. 
Slate is fairly good, although usually too dark in color. 
Wood should never be used. Each partition should extend 
to within six inches of the floor, three inches of the back, and 
should be about six feet high. This does away with corners, 
and makes it possible to clean floors, walls, and partitions 
easily, and yet effectually to screen the occupants. 

Doors. Each closet should be equipped with a door, 
arranged to swing inward when not in use and thus expose 
the entire closet to the germicidal action of the sun's rays. 
Such an arrangement also makes the task of inspecting the 
toilet-rooms easier. The common scheme of erecting a 
screen in front of the row of seats is unwise because it fails 
to afford the proper privacy, since, in order to reach the 
end of the row, it is necessary to pass in front of all the other 
stalls. It is not uncommonly suggested that in matters of 
toilet arrangements, bathing, and the like, modesty has 
become confused with prudery, and it is urged that the 
wisest educational plan would be to do away with all doors, 
screens, and partitions between individual toilet-stalls, and 
to teach children to think of such matters in a perfectly 
matter-of-fact way. 

In such arguments clear distinction should be made be- 
tween training people to be prudish and training them to 
be considerate of the feelings of others. There is probably 
no good reason why people should not undress and bathe 
in front of others of the same sex. There is nothing about 
the naked body which is repellent or distasteful. The school, 
therefore, may render a real service if it teaches children to 
regard the matter of bathing and dressing as a natural 
process which may properly be carried on as a group activ- 



TOILETS 113 

ity. The question of toilet regulations brings very different 
factors into consideration. The physical processes of evacu- 
ating bladder and bowels involve many unpleasant features. 
Children should be taught to seek privacy for the perform- 
ance of these acts, not through a sense of shame, but through 
a fastidious consideration of the feelings of others. At 
present in our best school systems the trend seems to be in 
the direction of affording to every child the same degree of 
privacy which the adult requires in his own home. 

Seats. The body of the toilet should be of vitreous ware, 
which is exceedingly hard, and cannot easily be scratched 
or stained or broken. Iron bodies covered with white enamel 
should not be used, because the enamel shortly wears off 
and the iron becomes corroded and ill-smelling. Toilet- 
seats should be of glass, porcelain, or other impervious ma- 
terial, with open front. Wooden seats are less likely to chill 
the body, but are harder to keep clean, and are therefore 
inferior to porcelain for public places. The floors directly 
underneath closets should be of asphaltum, marble, or glass, 
never of wood or cement. All plumbing should be so ar- 
ranged as to be readily accessible. 

Lavatories near toilets. Near the door of the toilet-room 
or directly outside should be sinks, hot and cold water, 
liquid or powdered soap, and paper towels. Within the 
near future the toilet-room for public buildings will undoubt- 
edly be greatly improved; but at the present time doors, 
latches, paper-holders, and chains must all be touched by 
the hands of different occupants; and, where persons are 
careless and hands become soiled, the opportunities for 
transmitting disease are very large. Typhoid, dysentery 
and other intestinal disorders, hookworm, and cholera may 
all be carried in this way. It is difficult for us to arrange 
toilets so that they will not become contaminated; but we 
can and should take pains to give every child definite knowl- 



114 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

edge of the danger of acquiring or transmitting disease by 
such means; and should insist on each child thoroughly- 
cleansing his hands with hot water and soap after every visit 
to the toilet. This can be accomplished only by careful 
teaching and supervision, but it is a matter of too great 
importance to neglect. 

Ventilation. Ventilation of toilet-rooms should be carried 
on separately from the main ventilating system. One of the 
easiest and most effective methods is to draw the air of the 
toilet-room down over the drains in urinals and closets, and 
out through a ventilating stack in which a draught is kept 
up by means of a heater placed in the stack. This heater 
may be composed of steam coils from the main heating 
plant, but probably a more satisfactory and inexpensive 
method is to have a small separate j&re, of the kind which 
burns slowly and steadily and does not need frequent re- 
plenishing. This fire should never be allowed to go out, even 
on Sundays and holidays, during the months in which 
schools are in session. Under no circumstances should the 
ventilating system of the toilet-room be part of the central 
system, because where this is the case back draughts are apt 
to occur and serious trouble result. 

Extra toilet-rooms. At least one toilet for boys and one 
for girls should be placed on each floor above the basement, 
or on landings between floors, to be used for emergency pur- 
poses. There should also be located, at convenient intervals 
throughout the building, toilet-rooms and wash-rooms for 
teachers. A toilet-room should be annexed to the office of 
the nurse or medical inspector, and special toilets should be 
provided near rooms designed for feeble-minded children. 
Special equipment has been designed for the kindergarten. 
In some cities it is the practice to build a large cupboard 
directly off the kindergarten room to be used for toilet pur- 
poses. The toilet stands about ten inches high, and is made 



TOILETS 115 

of white porcelain with a small seat and controlled flush. 
In some cases the lower part of the door is cut away, so that 
little children may go in and out without having to turn 
the handle or swing the heavy door. 

Toilet-rooms in high schools. In elementary schools, 
where all children are dismissed for recess or at the end of 
the session at the same time, it seems best to place toilets 
in large rooms in the basement, where they can be carefully 
supervised. In most high schools, however, students have 
ready access to toilet-rooms at the end of every recitation 
period, or even oftener, and the problem of supervision 
becomes serious. It seems to be more effective, therefore, in 
high schools to place separate toilet-rooms for boys and girls 
on every floor, each one designed to accommodate only as 
many persons as are likely to be at work on that floor at 
any one time. It is essential in planning high-school toilet- 
rooms to observe the suggestions concerning glazed surfaces, 
up-to-date equipment, and abundant lighting, because dark 
and insanitary rooms are almost sure to result in serious 
disciplinary problems. 

The rural-school problem. During the past decade in- 
creasing emphasis has been placed upon the necessity for 
providing adequate toilet facilities in rural schools. Super- 
intendents, principals, and teachers whose sole experience 
has been gained in city schools can hardly realize how seri- 
ous is the question of rural sanitation, nor how far behind 
modern times rural communities are in their knowledge of 
elementary hygiene. It is with something of a shock that 
many people view the figures gathered by urban and rural 
medical inspectors which testify so convincingly to the un- 
orthodox fact that country children are apt to be hollow 
chested, anaemic, short-sighted, and slightly deaf, with in- 
ferior eyesight, crooked backs, decayed teeth, and many 
forms of digestive disturbances. The city child has a better 



116 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

chance to reach adult Hfe than his country cousin; and the 
Rockefeller Commission tells us that in many of the South- 
ern States the barefoot boy is in grave danger of exchanging 
his coating of healthy tan for the pallid, fish-like stare of the 
hookworm patient. Any movement which seeks to keep 
country children on the farm must also see that they are 
taught how to live healthy, hygienic lives; otherwise it will 
do much to perpetuate disease. 

Hookwonn disease. Many of the diseases from which 
country people suffer are directly traceable to contaminated 
water and insanitary toilet conditions. There are communi- 
ties in the United States, many of them in regions which 
are proud of their cultured history, where farmers fail to 
provide even the crudest kind of outhouse for sanitary pur- 
poses, and members of the family are compelled to resort 
to cornfields, meadows, forest, and secluded corners behind 
various farm buildings. This filthy practice oh the part of 
the poorer type of American farmer is largely responsible 
for the alarming spread of hookworm disease; for hookworm 
disease is caused by minute worms which live in the intes- 
tines and hold themselves in place by means of hooks caught 
in the intestine wall. They are carried outside the body by 
human excrement, and if care is taken in its disposal they 
may be killed and prevented from doing further harm. 

Where through carelessness or ignorance body waste is 
allowed to fall on the ground where people are working, the 
larvae which speedily develop are apt sooner or later to come 
into contact with human hands or feet. They bore their 
way through the skin and find lodging in the body until 
they develop into full-grown parasites and are again cast 
out. Hookworm disease spreads rapidly through whole com- 
munities. Barefoot children are especially prone to contract 
it. It produces anaemia, — ghastly white faces and staring 
eyes, — it saps energy, and renders people stupid and slow. 



TOILETS 117 

so that they appear almost feeble-minded. It has cost the 
United States many thousands of dollars, but if proper 
toilets were built and their use enforced it could be practi- 
cally stamped out in a single generation. 

Rural sanitary surveys. During the spring of 1913 a 
study of rural-school conditions was carried on by the 
Joint Committee of the National Council of Education and 
the American Medical Association. The following quotation 
from their report is taken from Dr. Dresslar's book on 
Rural Schoolhouses and Grounds, published by the United 
States Bureau of Education, in 1914. The returns were 
based on studies of two counties each in 



Alabama 


Missouri 


Pennsylvania 


Arkansas 


Montana 


South Dakota 


Colorado 


Nebraska 


Tennessee 


Indiana 


North Carolina 


Texas 


Maryland 


North Dakota 


West Virginia 


Minnesota 


Oklahoma 


Wisconsin 



The toilet facilities of the rural schools are, generally speakmg, 
not only a disgrace, but a menace to public health and decent 
morals. Not over one per cent of rural schools are furnished with 
completely sanitary toilets. This is a liberal estimate. From the 
descriptions given in the returns it has been comparatively easy to 
decide between those which are passably sanitary and those in- 
sanitary. The figures are these: Out of 1276 replies examined, 50 
schools have no toilets at all; 52 have only one; 174 have two. 
Nearly half (601) have no pit at all for the refuse, and 631 have 
an open pit. Not 20 in the w^hole number are protected against 
flies or can be cleaned with any sort of success. 

The sanitary survey of 3572 fourth-class district schools, 
made in 1911 and 1912 by the Pennsylvania State Depart- 
ment of Education, shows that nearly 1200 were not clean, 
and over 1300 had an objectionable odor. At least 839 
had no vault to catch the waste; 785 were not water- 
tight, so that at times the contents worked through to the 
outer air. Over a thousand used no lime or ashes. In 500 



118 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

schools the vault was already full, and in 208 more it was 
overflowing. 

In another survey, carried on under the direction of the 
Joint Committee noted above, of the privies of 109 schools 
in the States of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Ver- 
mont, and Maryland, 50 were used by both boys and girls, 
50 were marked with obscene drawings, 92 were neither pro- 
vided with excavation nor removable receptacle, and of the 
109 only eight were cleaned of their contents more than once 
a year. 

These and similar studies are sufficient to show that in- 
sanitary rural conditions are not peculiar to any one local- 
ity or stock. Similar conditions may be found in most rural 
communities, no matter where situated, and they are the 
usual findings rather than the exception. 

Rural-school toilets. Wherever possible the rural school 
should be equipped with a flush toilet. This is not so diffi- 
cult to install as is commonly believed; since all that is 
necessary besides ordinary plumbing is a pressure tank for 
storing water and a pipe connection with sewer or septic 
tank. 

The septic tank. A septic tank is an arrangement whereby 
sewage is emptied into a water-tight compartment, in which 
bacteria are at work to change the solid matter into liquid. 
As the liquid is formed it is gradually introduced into a 
second compartment, from which it is carried to a distance 
and distributed through the soil. If improperly made, septic 
tanks are dangerous; but various highly satisfactory forms 
have been worked out, and minute directions are available, 
so that with proper care farmhouse and country school can 
be equipped with indoor flush toilets and the sewage dis- 
posed of without danger or discomfort. Septic tanks work 
best on hill slopes or in fairly porous soil. Where the soil is 
of clay special precautions have to be taken in their con- 



TOILETS 119 

struction, so that the leaching process (distribution of 
liquid) shall be effective. 

The location of the septic tank should be at least one 
hundred feet from the school building and three hundred 
feet from the source of water supply. Where possible, it 
should be on a lower level than the water supply, although, 
if it is properly constructed, and the distributing drains 
carried to a safe distance, there is little danger of contami- 
nating drinking-water. The tank itself should be constructed 
of water-tight material — concrete or masonry — carefully 
made, and plastered inside with a half-inch coat of rich 
cement mortar. The top may be made of heavy wood on 
hinges, or of concrete with manholes arranged to permit 
access to the tanks in case of stoppage. Connection with 
the plumbing inside the building should be by means of 
four-inch vitrified sewer pipe, and care should be taken to 
make all joints impregnable. This is especially important 
in swampy regions where there is much ground damp, or in 
wooded regions where the roots of trees tend to break or 
clog the piping. Entrance to the tank should be below the 
water level, so that the entering pipe will not become 
clogged with surface scum. An automatic siphon regulates 
the escape of liquid from the second chamber to the dis- 
tributing pipes. 

If the distributing point is at some distance the liquid may 
be carried by sewer pipe, carefully laid, on a grade of not 
less than two feet in every one hundred feet. These distrib- 
uting pipes should be hard-burned agricultural drain tiles. 
Distributing tiles should be about one and one-half feet be- 
low the surface of the ground, and should fall three inches in 
every one hundred feet. If care is not taken in regulating 
this fall much difficulty will be experienced, because liquid 
will either accumulate at one spot near the entrance or rush 
too suddenly to the extremes of the pipes. From two hun- 



120 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

dred to four hundred feet of distributing tile will be neces- 
sary, depending upon the amount of sewage and the nature 
of the soil. Where soil is mostly clay it is desirable to lay 
distribution tiles in trenches upon beds of cinders or gravel, 
and cover with earth. Tiles may be laid in one line or in 
branches; but in the latter case it is important that they 
should be so laid as to receive equal amounts of sewage. The 
ground above the distribution tiles should be planted with 
grass or flowers. 

It is of the greatest importance that whenever septic 
sewage disposal tanks are to be built, directions be secured 
from competent authorities, and minutely followed. Poorly 
built tanks may result in unpleasant odors, pollution of soil 
and water, gases within the building, or clogging of pipes; 
and one such tank will do much to discourage hygienic 
activities in the community. Directions for the construc- 
tion of septic tanks may be secured from various State 
boards of health. 

Location of rural toilets. School toilets should be so situ- 
ated as to be easily under supervision of the teacher, reached 
quickly, and without exposure to the weather, readily acces- 
sible from the playground, and so arranged as to have sepa- 
rate provision made for the sexes. The best place for toilets 
is within the school building — usually in the basement, 
with sections at opposite ends for boys and girls. Where 
water can be secured under pressure, and sewer or septic 
tank connections made, the indoor toilet is readily installed. 
If such arrangements cannot be made toilets must be placed 
outside. 

Outbuildings should be placed fifty feet away from the 
main building and from the drinking-water supply. Build- 
ings for boys and girls should be placed at a considerable 
distance from each other, and the approach should be 
screened by vines on trestles or by shrubbery. Dr. Dresslar 



TOILETS 121 

suggests planting evergreen shrubs, so that a thick screen 
may be formed in winter as well as in summer. Each building 
should be well constructed and kept in good repair. Win- 
dows and ventilating openings should be screened so as to 
exclude flies and mosquitoes. Doors should be carefully 
hung so as to fit tightly when closed, and should be provided 
with latches on the inside and padlocks on the out, so that 
they may be closed to tramps when the school is not in 
session. Doors should swing shut when not in use. 

Dug privies. The ordinary privy, which consists of a 
wooden house set over a shallow hole dug in the ground, is 
utterly unsafe, either for farm or school. In some instances 
the nature of the soil is such that it does no harm, but with- 
out a careful geological survey it is usually impossible to 
make sure, and there is serious risk of contaminating drink- 
ing-water and surrounding soil. Moreover, in such privies 
it is exceedingly difficult to exclude flies and mosquitoes, 
and as a result there is constant peril of typhoid epi- 
demics. 

The L.R.S. Privy. There are only two types of privies 
which can be considered safe. In one, the contents are dis- 
persed by a septic tank arrangement, such as that just 
described. In the other, the contents are removed at fre- 
quent intervals. Of this second type probably the best form 
is that devised by Drs. Lumsden, Roberts, and Stiles of 
the United States Public Health Service, and known as 
the "L.R.S. Privy." The L.R.S. privy is constructed on the 
principle of the septic tank, but instead of distributing the 
liquid by means of drains, it aUows it to flow into barrels, 
which are then carted away and emptied. In some cases the 
effluent tank is stationary and the liquid is pumped into 
separate vessels. It is important to note that in any privy 
operated on the principle of septic tank disposal disinfectants 
must not be used, because the tank depends for its successful 



122 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

operation on liquefying bacteria which would be killed by 
carbolic, lime, potash, and the like. 

Dry privies. Dry privies may be made by providing a 
strong, water-tight box or tank which may readily be re- 
moved and carted away, or by building a waterproof pit 
of brick or concrete. Access should be had to box or pit 
by means of doors at the back of the privy hung on hinges 
and made to fall in place and fit tightly. Each dry privy 
should be furnished with a plentiful supply of dust or ashes, 
and children should be taught to use it. 

Buckets are easier to empty, and require emptying more 
frequently than pits or tanks. The contents of the dry privy 
should be carted to a safe distance and buried. 

Outhouses. The usual privy is supplied with two seats. 
These should be separated by a partition to secure greater 
privacy. One seat should be about a foot high, for use of 
the smaller pupils; the other about sixteen inches high, for 
older pupils. A urinal should be supplied in the boys' toilet. 
The practice of placing an inclined trough outside the build- 
ing, emptying into the privy vault and protected by a high 
fence, is probably unwise because it encourages groups of 
boys to gather within the enclosure and leads to undesirable 
play. It is necessary, however, to provide some form of 
urinal within the building, since otherwise boys use the 
dust-bins or floor for that purpose, or allow the toilet-seat 
to become soiled. It is sometimes necessary to build a slant- 
ing projecting shelf above the seats in such a way as to 
prevent boys from standing upon them. It is usually wise 
also to provide a dust-bin with a closed top, and a place 
for removing dirt at the side or bottom. The seat-box 
above the vault should be luied with zinc. Seats should 
be of wood, and covers of wood lined with zinc. Covers 
should be fastened with hinges and arranged to fall of 
their own weight. Openings for ventilation should be 



TOILETS 123 

provided near the roof, and should be covered with wire 
screens. 

Detailed suggestions have been given for the construction 
of outdoor privies because they are the commonest form of 
toilet for the rural school. Local authorities should, how- 
ever, seriously consider tlie question before deciding in their 
favor. The privy of the country school is removed from 
supervision. It is unattractive and sometimes repelling in 
appearance. Because it is built of wood it is usually covered 
with obscene markings. Not infrequently it is the scene of 
disgusting and immoral practices, in which the younger 
children are too often allowed to share. An indoor flush 
toilet is more expensive than a dry privy; but its educational 
influence is decidedly preferable. 

QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 

1. Make a study of different types of toilet-room equipment now on the 
market, comparing them as to cleanliness, freedom from odor, dura- 
bility, simplicity, cost. 

2. What are the common ways of ventilating toilet-rooms? How do they 
work? 

3. It is commonly said that the emptyings of privies form an excellent 
fertilizer, and farmers frequently use them for that purpose. Dr. 
F. B. Dresslar and others claim that' the opposite is true. What 
evidence can you find bearing on the question? 

4. How is the sanitary toilet question handled by the army in time of 
peace? In time of war? What provisions are made in logging or 
construction camps? What precautions are taken to prevent epi- 
demics caused by poor toilet arrangements? What suggestions can 
be gained for public school practice? 

5. How and to what extent should toilet-rooms be supervised? 

SELECTED REFERENCES 

Ayres, Leonard P., and May. School Buildings and Equipment. Cleveland 
Education Survey Monograph. Russell Sage Foundation. (1916.) 

Dresslar, F. B. Rural Schoolhouses and Grounds. United States Bureau 
of Education, Bulletin no. 12. (1914.) 
One of the best discussions of the rural-school problem. 



124 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

Dresslar, Fletcher B. School Hygiene. The Macmillan Company. (1913.) 

Chapter on toilets gives good descriptions of privies for rural schools. 
Sanitary Schoolkouses. Legal requirements in Indiana and Ohio. United 

States Bureau of Education, Bulletin no. 52. (1913.) 
Stiles, C. W. The Sanitary Privy, Its Purposes and Construction. Public 
Health Bulletin no. 37. (Washington, 1910.) 
Excellent discussion of the rural problem. 

See also bulletins published by various State departments of education 

giving suggestions to rural-school authorities. 
See also printed reports of education surveys. 



CHAPTER VTII 

HEATING AND VENTILATING 

The lesson of contagious disease. Several years ago, when 
questions of school hygiene first began to assume a prom- 
inent place in educational discussion, studies were made 
showing the number of cases of contagious diseases among 
school children for each month in the year. It was shown 
with astounding clearness that the number of cases increased 
with the beginning of cold weather in the fall, reached a high 
peak during the most severe winter months, and gradually 
diminished as spring came on. The hygienic implications 
were all too clear, for the epidemic of contagious diseases 
coincided almost exactly with the periods during which 
classroom windows were closed and classrooms were arti- 
ficially heated. One of the results of this discovery was 
the beginning of the medical inspection service. Another 
was increased interest in and attention to the problems of 
ventilation. 

During the past decade immense amounts of time, 
thought, and money have been expended in the effort to 
secure for school buildings the best possible systems of 
heating and ventilating. The hot-air furnace has been re- 
placed by steam boilers. Window and gravity systems of 
ventilation have given way to the electrically driven fan, 
which blows air into the classrooms. Elaborate thermostat 
systems have been installed, and in order to keep them work- 
ing properly teachers have been warned that windows must 
be tightly closed, for heating plants are sensitive things, and 
nothing must be done which might disturb their equilibrium. 
Careful tests have been made to measure the carbon dioxide 



126 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

content of the classroom, and heating engineers have con- 
scientiously tried to see to it that each child received his 
33.3 cubic feet of hot fresh air every minute during the 
school day. But in spite of all these improvements the 
results have been discouraging. Epidemics of measles and 
scarlet fever have become rarer, because doctors have been 
on hand to detect preliminary cases and remove the offenders 
from the room, but colds and grippe are nearly as common 
as heretofore. Classrooms are frequently stuffy and filled 
with unpleasant odors; and teachers, after vainly endeavor- 
ing to live up to the rules, desperately seek relief by flinging 
windows wide open. 

Survey findings. This does not mean, however, that the 
newer mechanical devices have proved worthless. It is true 
that ventilation, even in our newest buildings, is frequently 
ineffective, but in the old buildings where fans have not 
been installed, and heating and ventilation are of the win- 
dow or gravity type, conditions are sometimes almost 
appalling. Take, for example, the conditions disclosed in 
some of the recent surveys of educational systems. The 
report from Springfield, Illinois, runs as follows : — • 

Most of the schoolrooms of Springfield are overheated. The 
temperature records taken in classrooms by the members of the 
survey staff were one hundred and seventy in number, and showed 
a range from fifty-eight to eighty-six degrees. The maximum 
temperature allowed in classrooms should be about sixty-eight 
degrees. More than two thirds of the temperatures taken were 
above this, and nearly half of them were above seventy degrees. 

In a number of the buildings the outdoor inlets are kept shut; 
in others, the air is sucked out of the basement and toilet-rooms 
instead of coming from outside, and in a considerable proportion 
of the buildings some part of the equioment has been left uncom- 
pleted or is out of order, so that the ventilating system works 
only partially. 

For Salt Lake City we find "members of the survey staff 
repeatedly entered schoolrooms which had the stifling 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 127 

temperature of seventy-five to eighty degrees." Judging 
from the records we may conclude that more than twelve 
hundred children in this city were daily subjected to suffo- 
cating temperatures above seventy-four degrees. It is little 
wonder that twenty per cent were subject to frequent colds, 
or that more than eight per cent were found to have chronic 
throat or nose trouble. "It is recommended that in future 
buildings, and wherever possible in the old buildings, air 
washers be installed. The discolored walls of very many 
rooms show that dirty air is being forced into the building. 
Air washers are not expensive, and they prevent the breath- 
ing of much injurious dust. The prevalence of smoke in the 
atmosphere of Salt Lake City during certain months of the 
year, renders their use more than ordinarily urgent in this 
city." Finally we read in the Denver Survey, "In all the 
Denver schoolrooms, with the exception of two buildings, 
the air of the classrooms is found to be as dry as that of a 
Sahara Desert." 

Early theories concerning ventilation. One hundred and 
thirty years ago the great French scientist Lavoisier suc- 
ceeded in identifying carbon dioxide gas. This gas was a 
poison, and for over three quarters of a century after it was 
identified scientists believed that the presence of too large 
quantities of this gas was responsible for the harmful effect 
of impure air. About 1861, however, the German chemist, 
Von Pettenkof er, conducted a series of experiments in which 
he was able to demonstrate that an excess of carbon dioxide 
was not responsible for the unpleasant symptoms noted in 
over-crowded or ill- ventilated rooms. While he was con- 
vinced that the gas was not dangerous, nevertheless he felt 
that since it was always found where many people were 
gathered in small, closed rooms its presence in considerable 
quantities did offer a trustworthy index of the presence in 
the air of other harmful impurities. 



128 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

It was on the basis of the work done by Lavoisier and Von 
Pettenkofer that many of our State laws on ventilation have 
been formed. These laws specify that the percentage of 
carbon dioxide in the air or buildings must not be permitted 
to exceed from seven to ten parts in ten thousand, and our 
ventilating systems are built to keep the amount of the 
gas within these limits. i 

Some recent experiments. Within recent times, how- 
ever, a series of exceedingly interesting experiments have 
been going on which are resulting in new and vastly differ- 
ent theories concerning ventilation. At the University of 
Minnesota, for example, two stalls were built as nearly air- 
tight as they could possibly be made. In one of these a steer 
was confined for thirty-seven days and lived in perfect com- 
fort and robust health. He made true and steady gains in 
weight, and seemed not to suffer in any way. In another a 
steer was kept for twenty-eight days. This animal's horn 
was accidentally broken, but not only did he enjoy perfect 
health and comfort, but his wound healed with remarkable 
celerity, in an atmosphere so contaminated that the carbon 
dioxide content rose to ninety times the normal. 

Professor Leonard Hill, of England, caused a small room 
to be built and made completely air-tight. In this room his 
students lived and worked for days at a time in perfect 
health and comfort. He writes: *'We have watched them 
trying to light a cigarette to relieve the monotony of the 
experiment, and, puzzled by their matches going out, bor- 
rowing others, only in vain. They had not sensed the per- 
centage of the diminution of oxygen, which fell below seven- 
teen." (That is, seventeen per cent of normal.) The normal 
proportion of carbon dioxide in outdoor air is about three 
parts in ten thousand. The greatest amount permitted by 
ventilating laws is commonly ten parts. In experimental 
chambers of the kind conducted by Professor Hill the pro- 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 129 

portion has risen as high as two hundred and thirty-one 
parts, or eighty times the normal amount without any bad 
results whatever. J 

In one of Dr. Hill's experiments eight persons were con- 
fined in a small, air-tight chamber which contained approxi- 
mately three cubic meters of air. The oxygen fell from 
twenty to between sixteen and seventeen per cent, and the 
carbon dioxide increased from .04 to between three or four 
per cent, or nearly one hundred times its usual amount. 
As the oxygen fell, the eight persons in the chamber showed 
all the unmistakable signs of suffering from vitiated air. 
The temperature was between eighty and eighty-five degrees 
Fahrenheit, and was very moist. After a short period three 
electric fans attached to the ceiling of the room were started. 
The air remained just as hot, just as wet, and just as stale 
as it had been before, but the turning-on of the electric 
fans brought complete relief, for the simple reason that 
it whirled away the still hotter stationary air which had 
gathered as a sort of an envelope on the surface of the body, 
and allowed the heat generated by the body to be carried off. 

Of perhaps equal interest are the experiments of Dr. Paul, 
of the University of Breslau, who found that when human 
beings were placed in experimental chambers where the air 
was hot and very humid, symptoms of discomfort appeared 
within a very few minutes, long before enough of the poison- 
ous gases could have accumulated to account for the change. 
Without telling the subject in the room what was happen- 
ing fans were started, which caused the air to move rapidly 
about. Almost at once the unpleasant symptoms disap- 
peared. The skin became cool and moist, and the subject 
felt that fresh air had been supplied to the room. Later the 
fans were stopped, and, after the subject had been confined 
in the experimental chambers for some time and had again 
shown all the acute symptoms of foul-air poisoning, a tube 



130 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

was passed through the wall of the chamber and the subject 
was allowed to breathe fresh air from outside through the 
tube. Strange as it may seem, although he was filling his 
lungs with plenty of pure, fresh air, the subject continued 
to feel just as uncomfortable and stifled as before. Then the 
process was reversed, and one of the men on the outside 
applied his nose and mouth to the openings of the tube and 
filled his lungs over and over again with the foul air con- 
tained in the closed chamber. He suffered not the slightest 
discomfort. It is as a result of these experiments that we 
find the amazing statement: "Air is not to breathe, but to 
bathe in.*' Stagnant air is like a hot wet blanket wrapped 
tightly around the person's body, so thick and impenetrable 
that the body heat cannot escape, and a man is, in a certain 
very real sense, "consumed in his own fires." When the 
covering is broken up and the air put in motion relief comes. 
Another interesting piece of evidence is cited by Dr. 
Leonard P. Ayres, in an address before the National Edu- 
cation Association, in 1911. He says: — 

A recent impressive illustration occurred last winter, during 
the final stages of construction of a Connecticut school building 
equipped with humidifying apparatus. During the very cold 
weather in December the carpenters employed on the inside fin- 
ishing work complained of the cold with the thermometer at 
seventy-five degrees. The foreman did not wish to force the 
temperature higher, because the new woodwork was already open- 
ing badly at the joints. Suddenly a discussion with the architect 
about the new humidifying apparatus occurred to him, and he had 
the steam turned on in the fresh-air chambers. Soon the frost 
began to appear on the windows, and in three hours the cracks 
in the new woodwork were entirely closed. The most remarkable 
result, however, was the effect of the humidity upon the workmen. 
Before the steam had been on half an hour the men who had been 
complaining about the cold began to take off their coats and then 
their vests. The temperature was lowered, and soon the men were 
happily working in their shirt-sleeves with the temperature at 
sixty-eight degrees. 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 131 

The Springfield Y.M.C.A. experiment. One of the most 
interesting experiments from the point of view of school men 
was that carried on during the winter of 1912 in the gymna- 
sium building of the Y.M.C.A. training college at Spring- 
field, Massachusetts. This is a large modern building, 
includiag two gymnasiums, laboratory, offices, and class- 
rooms. It is used practically all the time. Under the direc- 
tion of Dr. James H. McCurdy an experiment was insti- 
tuted in which, instead of taking air from outside the build- 
ing and delivering it heated to the various rooms, as is the 
usual plan, the gymnasium was run for weeks at a time by 
simply using the same air over and over again. The only 
fresh air which was allowed in the buildings was that which 
came in through natural leakage. When the process of 
re-circulation of air was well under way, careful tests were 
made to determine the volume of air moVed, the humidity 
and temperature, the chemical constituents of the air, and 
the feelings of the students who were working in the build- 
ing. The results were amazing. 

It was found, in the first place, that through the process 
of re-circulation it was possible, by washing the air carefully 
each time it was circulated, to keep it more free from dust 
and bacteria than the air outside. In the second place, the 
washing of the air also removed all unpleasant odors so that 
the building smelt sweet and clean. In the third place, the 
air was kept at the right degree of moisture. In the fourth 
place, during hot weather it was just as possible to cool the 
air of the building by the washing process as it was to warm 
the building with moist clean air during the winter. In the 
fifth place, and from some points of view most amazing, the 
expense of operating the ventilating and heating plant was 
reduced from $1.07 to $.52 an hour. This reduction was 
largely due to the fact that under ordinary conditions it is 
necessary to take the air at the outside temperature and 



132 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

bring it up to room temperature. When the re-circulation 
is in process, extra heat is needed only to make good the 
heat loss which the air has incurred during its passage 
through the building. 

The Springfield experiment has been so successful that 
many people do not hesitate to declare that ventilating 
schemes of the future will be entirely based on the re-circu- 
Iaj:ion plan. In discussing this matter Dr. Luther H. Gulick 
has said : — 

Ventilation seeks to control the conditions of the atmosphere 
in which the body is immersed, rather than to control its com- 
position; because its composition is practically stable and needs 
no attention, while its condition is exceedingly changeable as well 
as important. The ideal ventilation for a school building consists 
in re-circulating and properly conditioning its contained air. 
The advantages are that the air may be kept under more health- 
giving conditions, through more perfect control of temperature, 
humidity, air movements, dust, odors, and also because of the 
financial saving. That is, we have now arrived at such a knowledge 
of ventilation that it is possible to have indoors and practically 
all the time those conditions which are found outdoors only when 
Nature is at her best. Man has at last accomplished, with reference 
to the air he breathes and in which he is enveloped, what he 
learned to do years ago with reference to the water we drink — 
have it at its best all the time. 

Other experiments, quite different from that so glowingly 
referred to by Dr. Gulick, were those carried on in the open- 
air classes for tubercular children. Here it was found that 
under the conditions of open air, warm clothing, good food, 
and plenty of sleep, children became healthier and more 
alert than were their classmates in the best- ventilated school- 
room. All the evidence of the open-air classroom seems to 
point away from the validity of the re-circulation plan and 
toward the necessity of having entirely fresh air surround- 
ing the children. As a matter of fact, however, there were so 
many elements entering into the open-air class experiment 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 133 

that the success of the work could not properly be attributed 
to the one cause of open air. One fact, however, proved to 
be especially significant. It has been demonstrated clearly 
that children who attend the open-air class speedily improve 
in appetite. This has been found true even in those cases 
where children in the open-air classes did not seem to gain 
in any other way. Until recently very little attention was 
paid to this fact, but within the past few months experi- 
ments have been conducted which emphasize its impor- 
tance from the point of view of classroom ventilation. 

Work of the New York State Ventilating Commission. In 
1913, at the request of the New York Association for 
Improving the Condition of the Poor, the Governor of the 
State appouited a ventilation commission for the purpose of 
studying, in a scientific manner, various problems of venti- 
lation. The cost of the commission was met from part of a 
fund established by Mrs. Elizabeth Milbank Anderson for 
carrying on various phases of constructive social investi- 
gation. For the past three years this commission has been 
carrying on a series of extensive and very careful experi- 
ments, and has come to some exceedingly interesting con- 
clusions. It finds, for example, that even very hot, moist 
rooms have very little effect upon the actual power of the 
subject to do mental work. Heat raises the temperature of 
the body, increases the heart rate, and lowers the blood 
pressure. People do not feel like working in a very hot, 
damp room, but if obliged to work they do so very success- 
fully. Stagnant air at the same temperature as fresh air, 
even when it contains twenty or more parts of carbon dioxide 
and all the organic and other substances in breathed air of 
an occupied room, according to the commission's findings, 
has no effect on any of the physiological responses listed 
above, nor on the power to do physical or mental work, nor 
even on the sensations of comfort of the subject breathing it. 



134. HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

On the other hand, and this is an immensely important 
finding, the commission found that vitiated air results in a 
diminished appetite for food. When it is moderately cool 
and in motion students can work, study, and play in foul air 
as properly as in fresh, but they cannot work up an appetite 
in it. In the New York Commission's tests, after the sub- 
jects had been in the experimental room for some two or 
three hours, a luncheon, made up of weighted portions of 
known caloric values, was served and the amount of food 
left imeaten was weighed, to determine by difference the 
amounts consumed. The diet was varied from day to day, 
but was so arranged that each article of food appeared an 
equal number of times on days when regular ventilation 
was provided and on other days when only foul air was 
admitted to the chamber. On the no-ventilation days the 
carbon dioxide averaged between twenty-nine and fifty 
parts, and there was usually a slight odor noticeable in the 
room. Sometimes the odor was strong enough to be un- 
pleasant. It was found to be a practically unvarying rule 
that more food was eaten on the days when ventilation was 
supplied than on the days when subjects sat in foul air. 

It is interesting to note, too, in connection with this 
experiment, that when the subjects were asked each day 
concerning their opinions as to the comfort of the atmos- 
phere — the actual condition being kept secret — they 
usually felt that the no-ventilation days were the more 
comfortable. In giving its report the Commission said : — 

These experiments seem to warrant the conclusions that there 
are substances present in the air of an unventilated, occupied 
room (even when its temperature and humidity are controlled) 
which in some way, and without producing conscious discomfort 
or detectable psychological symptoms, diminish the appetite for 
food. The effect of such an influence might in time be very impor- 
tant, and it seems possible that the observed beneficial effect of 
fresh air may to some extent be connected with this phenomenon. 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 135 

Five principles of ventilation. The experiments described 
above are only a few of the many which have been carried 
on. Although the results are in some cases confusing, and 
many problems have arisen which call for further experi- 
mentation before they can be settled, there seem to be five 
general rules which have been fairly well established. 

1. Air warm, not hot. In the first place, air should be 
warm, not hot. Probably one of the most important results 
of over-heating in the classroom is that originally demon- 
strated by Leonard Hill, and later confirmed by James 
Alexander Miller, of the New York Commission. These 
scientists have succeeded in demonstrating that over-heated 
air promotes congestion of the membranes of the nose, 
which in turn frequently brings about a susceptibility to 
infection. It now seems probable that many of our colds 
and coughs may be charged directly to over-heated rooms. 
It was found in the New York Commission on Ventilation 
experiment that the temperature of the body rises at almost 
exactly the same rate that the temperature of the room 
rises. The most desirable temperature for the classroom 
where children spend most of their time sitting still seems to 
be from sixty-five to seventy degrees Fahrenheit, depending 
upon the humidity of the atmosphere and the amount of 
motion in the air. 

2. Air clean, not dirty. The second rule is that air should 
be clean, not dirty. This rule applies more to the air which 
we take into the lungs than to the air which surrounds the 
body. Dirty air is apt to carry with it small particles of 
mineral matter which pierce the lining of the lungs and 
set up an irritation which may result in the beginning of 
tuberculosis. 

3. Air moist, not dry. The third rule is that air should be 
moist, not dry. All outdoor air carries with it a great deal of 
moisture. When we take a cubic foot of out-of-door air at 



136 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

a temperature of thirty-two degrees and heat it to seventy 
degrees, we have multiplied its capacity for holding mois- 
ture three and one-half times. If we do not add to our 
heating plant some method of supplying the extra moisture 
which is needed, we fill our classrooms with dry, thirsty air, 
which quickly flows around the bodies of the children and 
absorbs the moisture on their skins and mucous membranes. 
As soon as this protective covering of moisture is taken 
away the skin becomes dry and parched, the face is flushed, 
and the mucous membrane surfaces become irritated, so 
that they are peculiarly sensitive. As was suggested earlier, 
dry, hot air renders children especially liable to catch con- 
tagious diseases. 

In considering this question of the action of dry air upon 
the skin it is interesting to compare the complexions of girls 
in Ireland, the Maritime Provinces of Canada, and the coast 
districts of Washington and Oregon, with the complexions 
of the women in those of our Western and Middle Western 
States where there is little rainfall and the air is particu- 
larly dry. Humidity, of course, is not the only factor which 
enters into the question of clear skin and rosy cheeks. 
Moderate temperature, for instance, seems to be a help, 
and extreme hot or cold weather a hindrance. But, in gen- 
eral, it seems to be true that under ordinary outdoor tem- 
perature the body thrives when the humidity shows from 
fifty to eighty per cent of saturation, and suffers when the 
humidity drops very much below this point. When we read 
the reports of the various educational surveys, which tell 
us that the average air in classrooms visited ranges from 
only twenty to thirty degrees of saturation, we can easily 
understand why it is that plants in a classroom wither and 
die and children become weary. 

Jf. Air moving, not still. In the fourth place, air must be 
moving, not still. Sometimes in a cold room it is found that. 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 137 

although the radiators are very hot, they do not seem able 
to pass their heat out into the room. If we open the doors 
and windows for a minute or two and then quickly shut 
them we find that something seems to have happened to 
the way the radiators work, and the room becomes quickly 
warm. The explanation is that in the quiet classroom each 
radiator has become surrounded by a thick blanket of quiet 
air which has held in the heat and prevented it from passing 
to the rest of the room. When doors and windows were open 
a draught was created, which broke up this blanket and set 
the air of the room into motion. 

In certain ways human beings are very much like the radi- 
ators. They are constantly giving heat off into the air. If 
the air is very still, it forms a blanket around the body, 
which holds in the heat and prevents it from being properly 
carried away. If the air is hot and dry, it absorbs the mois- 
ture around the body, and this process of evaporation cools 
the skin; but if the air is damp, evaporation cannot take 
place, and the body is held by a hot, sticky blanket which 
renders the person most uncomfortable. If doors or windows 
are opened, or an electric fan is started, just as was the case 
with the radiator the air is set in motion and driven away, 
so that heat is carried off and the body is bathed in a moving 
stream of fresh, cool air. Under ordinary classroom tem- 
peratures absolutely quiet air is extremely uncomfortable. 
All the air in the classrooms should be moving all the time. 
A few. years ago air entering the classrooms was calculated 
on the basis of the amount each child needed to breathe. 
Now we are coming to believe that the important thing is 
to find out how much air the child needs to bathe in. 

5. Air of changing temperature. The fifth rule is that 
air should be of changing temperatures. Dr. Ellsworth 
Huntington, of Yale, was one of the first people to demon- 
strate clearly the stimulating effect of changes in tempera- 



138 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

ture. Dr. Huntington studied the wages of factory workers 
in Connecticut, and the marks of students at West Point 
and AnnapoHs. He found that hot weather makes people 
somewhat inefficient and cold weather makes them even 
more so. But, generally speaking, when the temperature 
is not above seventy or below forty-three, any change in 
weather, whether it be warmer or colder, seems to have a 
distinctly stimulating effect. 

It is a well-known fact that warm countries seem to make 
people lazy, and Northerners are apt to speak scornfully 
of those who have the *' to-morrow" habit. It is true that 
living in the land of perpetual summer does have a curiously 
discouraging effect upon the desire to work, and the reason 
probably is to be found in this very question of changes in 
temperature. Where the range of temperature is very slight, 
and the thermometer registers very nearly the same day 
after day and week after week, even though there are no 
excessively hot periods, mind and body begin to work slowly. 
The human organism needs the stimulus of change. 

So we have our five modern principles of ventilation. Air 
should be warm, not hot; clean, not dirty; moist, not dry; 
moving, not still; and of constantly changing temperatures. 
If these principles are valid, and all the evidence seems to be 
pointing that way, it means that all our present systems of 
heating and ventilation must be subjected to careful scru- 
tiny, for they were devised to fit very different theories. We 
shall retain some of our methods because we find they work, 
and our changes will come in the explanation we give for 
them. There are other schemes which we have tried, how- 
ever, and with which we have already had to acknowledge 
failure. Here we must cast aside the old apparatus and sys- 
tems of heating and ventilating, and experiment with new 
methods and new processes in the Hght of our more recent 
discoveries. 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 1S9 

The ventilating engineer. There are two main reasons 
why the ventilating of schoolhouses is usually so unsatis- 
factory. In the first place, it is not until very recently that 
physiologists or medical men have begun to find out what 
they mean by fresh air. Even now, statements as to what 
kinds and conditions of air are most suited to the human 
body are in the nature of hypotheses, which furnish us with 
guides for practice and experiment, but have still to be sub- 
jected to more definite proof. Ventilating engineers have 
been trying to give good ventilation without knowing what 
good ventilation is. 

The other probable reason for unsatisfactory conditions 
in schoolhouses lies in the fact that even at the present time 
school boards and superintendents fail to realize that the 
problem of ventilating and heating belongs to a special field, 
and must be handled by experts in that field. When a new 
building is being erected the architect is usually asked to 
take charge of installing the ventilating system. In some 
cases he secures the assistance of a competent heating and 
ventilating engineer, and places the whole matter in his 
hands. All too frequently, however, the architect feels that 
he knows enough to supervise such work himself, and the 
heating and ventilating plant is installed by a contractor 
under the supervision of the architect. Mr. G. G. Kimball, 
one of the members of the New York Commission, has esti- 
mated that the cost of the very best engineering services for 
the design and supervision of a heating, and ventilating plant 
varies from one half to three quarters of one per cent of the 
cost of the building. Where a first-class engineer is em- 
ployed the amount saved in installation and operation is 
immensely greater than his charge for services. The installa- 
tion of such a plant is always costly. Errors in planning and 
building are easily made, and once made are frequently 
impossible to repair. An inferior plant is so difficult to 



140 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

handle and so seriously impairs the efficiency of the school 
that neglect to hire competent engineering service in the 
first place is evidence of a stupid and short-sighted policy. 

Not only must the equipment be planned and installed 
under expert supervision, but care must also be taken to 
see that adequate funds are placed at the disposal of the 
engineer. It is peculiarly true in the field of heating and 
ventilating that an adequate initial investment saves con- 
stantly incurring heavier expenses later. Whenever a school 
board contemplates cutting down the appropriation, it 
should first give the heating engineer a chance to argue in 
defense of his original plan. 

Legislation. As those who are building schoolhouses try 
to put into practice the modern theories of heating and 
ventilating they will find that in many cases progress is 
seriously hampered because, in an effort to insure good 
conditions in school buildings, laws have been placed upon 
the statute books making compulsory conditions which 
now seem unadvisable. For example, in Delaware, Idaho, 
Indiana, Massachusetts, Montana, New Jersey, New York, 
Pennsylvania, South Dakota, and Vermont, the law requires 
that the temperature be kept at seventy degrees Fahren- 
heit. Recent investigation seems to show that if the air is 
properly humidified temperatures not higher than sixty-five 
degrees are desirable, and seventy is certainly too high. 
In twenty -one States the law requires that fresh air be pro- 
vided at the rate of thirty cubic feet per pupil per minute. 
The wording of these laws and regulations varies, but it is 
possible that in many States attempts to install systems of 
re-circulation of air will be blocked by existing laws. 

In a similar way, various States give definite direction for 
the location of air inlets and outlets, their size, the instal- 
lation of registers, flues, dampers, and the like. In New 
Jersey the velocity of the air introduced should not be over 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 141 

three hundred feet per minute. In New York it must be 
over three hundred, but not more than four hundred feet 
per minute. In some States the regulations concerning heat 
and ventilation are the results of legislative enactment and 
can only be changed by legislative procedure. In others the 
matters have been left to the discretion of the State board 
of health, chief of police, or board of education. It is to be 
hoped that future regulations will be of this latter type, so 
that they may be changed if scientific experiment later 
points to the desirability of doing so. 

Stoves. Practically all rural schools of the United States 
are heated by stoves. In all too many cases the stove is 
placed in the middle of the room and is of the old-fashioned 
type with direct radiation, so that children sitting near are 
uncomfortably warm and those at a distance are cold. For- 
tunately, in many States there has been a direct and strong 
movement away from the old-fashioned unprotected stove 
and in favor of the jacketed stove. In some cases this is 
brought about by prohibitory rulings or legislation. For 
example, Indiana makes it a requirement that all stoves 
shall be surrounded by a jacket consisting of two sheets, the 
outer sheet being of heavy galvanized iron lined with sheet 
asbestos. The inner jacket, which must be not less than 
three quarters of an inch distant from the outer, must be 
of tin or some other suitable metal. The jacket must stand 
at least three inches away from the stove, and must extend 
to the floor. 

North Dakota and Minnesota, while actually not legislat- 
ing against the unjacketed stove, provide State aid where 
stoves of the proper kind are supplied. In Minnesota, if 
aid is to be granted, the jackets must be of iron or copper- 
plated steel, with a lining of asbestos and an inside lining of 
tin, with ample air space between. It must stand six inches 
away from the stove, and the lower edge must not be less 



142 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

than twelve inches above the floor. South Dakota makes 
the approval of rural-school plans by the State Superintend- 
ent dependent among other things upon having stoves sup- 
plied with a metal jacket extending one or two feet above 
the stove, and with arches around the bottom extending 
from eight to ten inches above the floor. 

The reason why so much emphasis is placed upon using 
a jacket for schoolroom stoves is, that without the jacket 
heat is distributed only to those children who are sitting 
near the stove. No currents of air are set up, and the heat 
is not carried to other parts of the room. With the jackets 
properly made and adjusted, cold air is admitted from the 
outside of the building, is carried up inside the jacket, and 
warmed as it circulates around the stove, and passing up 
through the jacket, flows out through the room near the 
ceiling. The foul air of the room is drawn under the jacket 
and acts as a draught for the fire. Part of it also mixes with 
the fresh air being admitted from the outside, and is re- 
circulated throughout the room. Where jackets are prop- 
erly made and installed, the system works fairly well. It 
is usually necessary, however, to open the windows instead 
of merely depending on stoves for ventilation. Ventilation 
secured in the latter way is thoroughly successful only when 
great difference is noted between inside and outside tem- 
peratures. 

Furnaces. The furnace is constructed on the same prin- 
ciple as the jacketed stove. It consists roughly of a fire-box 
inside, a jacket outside, and space between to which air 
is admitted and where it becomes warm and is then sent 
through pipes to the rooms of the building. Furnace fires 
form an easy way of heating school buildings. They cost 
very little, are simple and inexpensive to repair, and are 
so simple to run that very little special training is necessary 
for the job. Another and very important factor is that the 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 143 

furnace fire can be allowed to go out at the end of the 
school day without danger of putting the system out of 
order. The chief disadvantage of heating by means of 
furnaces is that it is very easy to make the fire too hot, so 
that the air when sent up into the classrooms is actually hot 
instead of warm. As we have already seen, children do not 
need to be supplied with hot air in order to keep them com- 
fortable on cold days; what they do need is a plentiful supply 
of rapidly moving, warm, moist air. It is possible to equip 
furnaces with fans and moistening apparatus, so that these 
two latter requirements may be provided, but there are 
at present very few places where this has been done. 

It is also difficult to distribute the warm air evenly in 
the different rooms of the building. Usually one or two 
rooms will receive more than their share because the supply 
pipes are shorter and run at a more direct angle to these 
rooms. Even where all supply pipes are furnished with 
dampers, it is not always easy to see to it that every room is 
properly heated. 

In the third place, furnaces frequently get out of order, 
and the gases formed in the fire-box are allowed to leak 
through cracks into the air-box and so find their way into 
the classrooms. Furnaces are still being used in our old 
buildings and in some of our new small buildings, but they 
are rapidly being displaced by other forms of heating. 

One of the difficulties most frequently encountered in 
using hot-air furnaces for school buildings is that when a 
wind blows strongly against one side of the building the air 
pressure on that side becomes so strong that it prevents hot 
air from rising through the furnace pipes into the rooms on 
that side. When candles are carried from room to room it 
is found that in certain rooms the flame flickers outward, 
but in others it is actually drawn down toward the register, 
because, instead of having hot air come up into the room, 



144 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

the cold air already contained in the room is being sucked 
down by the furnace. ^4 

It was because of the difficulty of distributing heat evenly 
to all the rooms of the building on windy days that furnace 
heating fell so much into disfavor. It is interesting to note, 
therefore, that recently experiments have been made which 
seem to show how to obviate this difficulty. At present 
some of our most carefully planned private residences have 
given up the idea of steam heating and returned to hot-air 
furnaces. Each room in the house is provided with a flue 
which goes up through the walls and empties into an air 
chamber at the top. By means of this construction, even 
when all the doors are closed between rooms and strong 
winds are blowing against one side, the air pressure through- 
out all the rooms is equalized and the heat from the furnace 
is therefore able to distribute itself to all parts of the house. 

These new houses, also, are usually provided with a means 
of cutting off the outdoor intake. When the weather is 
extremely cold the intake from outdoors is closed and the 
air already within the house is re-circulated, either through 
natural circulation or with the assistance of an electric 
blower. This means, of course, an immense saving of fuel 
and the results secured seem entirely satisfactory. 

The experiments just described have been actually tried 
out in a sufficient number of cases so that there seems to be 
little doubt of the success of the scheme. It is probably true 
that when school buildings of moderate size are built with 
flues and equalizing air chamber, the hot-air furnace will 
form an economical and exceedingly satisfactory method 
of heating. 

Hot-water heating. Systems of heating schoolhouses by 
hot water seem to be much more used in England than 
in the United States. In this country they are rather out 
of favor, probably because after being installed they are 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 145 

constantly getting out of order and^because, since they need 
a large radiating surface, the installment of pipes and radia- 
tors is rather cumbersome and expensive. Systems of hot- 
water heating are simple and very easy to handle. They do 
not require either very constant attention or very much 
skill. Admirers of the system claim that hot-water plants 
easily carry heat for long distances, so that the system is 
particularly adapted to central heating plants which supply 
rooms of buildings at some distance from the center. 

Steam heating. In the United States the commonest 
form of heating for school buildings is by low-pressure 
steam plants. Steam radiators give out a steady supply of 
warm air which is never overheated, and the steam supply 
may easily be turned on or cut off from different rooms by 
a very simple mechanism. As is the case with hot-water 
heating, it is possible to carry the steam from a heating 
plant at a considerable distance from the room or building. 
Steam is particularly useful as a heating medium, moreover, 
because it can be supplied in so many different ways for 
various types of direct and indirect heating. The disad- 
vantages of steam heating are, first, that it is rather expen- 
sive to install and repair; second, changes must be made 
slowly so that if it is necessary to turn on the heat in a 
building in a short time or to cool a room rapidly trouble 
is usually experienced; and third, in cold weather it is nec- 
essary to have fires going all the time because otherwise 
there is danger of pipes bursting. 

In general it is probably undesirable to use high-pressure 
steam systems for public schools, unless the heating plant 
is in a separate building from the rest of the school. High- 
pressure plants are much more dangerous than low-pressure, 
and not very much more effective for school purposes. 

Heating and ventilating schemes. There are a great many 
different combinations of methods of heating and ventilating. 



146 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

Most of these belong to one of three groups. The term 
"direct heating" is usually used to mean heating by means 
of radiators placed under the windows or pipes run around 
the sides of the classrooms. The windows are the coldest 
spots in the room. Cold enters around the glass and radi- 
ates from the glass pane. When radiators or steam pipes 
are placed directly below windows, they heat this cold 
entering air before it has time to escape into the rooms. 
Many school buildings and most office buildings are heated 
by the direct method alone. 

Indirect heating means that air is drawn over pipes or 
radiators and then carried by flues to the classrooms. Some- 
times these pipes are in the walls very near the opening of 
the inlet, where the air enters the room. Sometimes they 
are placed in rooms in the basement and warm the air for 
several classrooms. 

At one time the indirect system was highly recommended 
for heating schoolhouses, but it was found difficult to keep 
the rooms warm enough by this method alone. Radiators 
were then added underneath the windows, and the com- 
bination of flues and radiators was described as the direct- 
indirect method. This is now one of the commonest forms 
of heating for larger school buildings. 

Flues; use of windows. The building of the air flues is 
a matter over which there is great controversy. For exam- 
ple. Dr. Fletcher B. Dresslar, specialist in school hygiene 
and school sanitation for the United States Bureau of Edu- 
cation, says that the best position for the inlet duct is about 
eight feet from the floor, a little back of the middle of the 
inside wall opposite the windows. On the other hand. Dr. 
E. A. Winslow, Chairman of the New York State Commis- 
sion on Ventilation, suggests that it will frequently be best 
to take advantage of the natural upward tendency of air 
which is being warmed by supplying cool, fresh air below 



HEATING AKD VENTILATING 147 

and removing the warm air above. Other authorities divide 
about equally between the two positions. In the same way 
very different directions are given for the size and shape of 
flues; although most of the authorities agree that large flues 
are more desirable than small ones, because they make it 
possible to admit large quantities of air without causing 
a strong draught. For the school superintendent the wisest 
plan is probably to secure the services of the best ventilat- 
ing engineer available, and leave the question of location 
and size to his judgment. 

In many of our modern buildings, equipped with elabo- 
rate heating systems and thermostats, there is an iron- 
bound rule that no teacher shall open the windows during 
school hours. Suppose, for example, that it is a very cold 
day and the teacher throws open the classroom window for 
a minute or two in order to get a breath of fresh air. Power- 
ful fans downstairs are driving hot air into aU the rooms 
of the building. When the window is opened one of several 
things may happen. A draught may be created, for example, 
and the stream of hot air which is rushing up from the fan 
may be carried straight across the classroom and out the 
window. The draught is so strong that this room gets more 
than its share of heat and the temperatures in other rooms 
fall. As soon as the temperature falls the thermostats in 
other classrooms start their mechanism into motion, so that 
more steam is turned on for all the radiators. Downstairs 
the fireman shovels in coal to generate more heat to take the 
place of the huge volume of warm air which is rushing out 
through the one teacher's open window. 

Or again, suppose that instead of warm air going out 
through the window a volume of cold air rushes in. The 
teacher opened the window because the room was too warm; 
but, it has not yet had time to cool off. When the cold 
air strikes the thermostat it automatically registers and 



148 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

acts, so that more steam is tm-ned on to the radiators. The 
teacher now closes the windows, but the radiators are work- 
ing even more actively than before and in a few minutes the 
room is intolerably hot again. As the heat increases, the ther- 
mostats become warm and the steam is turned off from the 
radiators. The teacher, however, finding the room quickly 
uncomfortable, again throws the window wide open, cold 
air rushes in, the thermostat becomes chilled, the steam 
heat is turned on in the radiators, and the same story is 
repeated over and over. No wonder janitors object when 
teachers open their windows in buildings equipped with the 
ordinary type of modern heating and ventilating apparatus. 

Nor can one always blame the teacher if she feels that the 
regulation against opening windows is a useless imposition. 
One of the most frequent difficulties encountered with 
modern types of artificial ventilating apparatus is that the 
heat supplied to all the classrooms is at the same tempera- 
ture. Classrooms on the north side of the building, which 
are naturally cold when exposed to the wind, need more 
heat than do those on the southern side of the building, where 
the sun pours into the room all day long. Often there is a 
difference of as much as five or ten degrees between the two 
rooms, but the heat supplied in each case is practically the 
same. 

Contrary to the general belief, it is possible to construct 
buildings with modern apparatus so that the windows in 
any room may be opened without interfering with the heat- 
ing and ventilating of other rooms. This is made possible 
by substituting for the old common-duct arrangement either 
the double-duct system or the individual-duct system. In 
both these latter systems the air for each room is individu- 
ally regulated according to its need. Under the ordinary 
system there is a heating chamber in the basement where all 
the air supplied to the building is warmed and driven up 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 149 

through one huge duct, which has branches connecting with 
each room. The double-duct system is built on the same 
plan, but under every branch carrying warm air into the 
room there is a second branch carrying cool air. At the base 
of each flue there are dampers, which are connected with a 
thermostat. When the temperature of the room falls, the 
thermostat acts so that the warm-air damper is open and 
the cool-air damper is partly closed. As the room becomes 
too hot, the warm-air damper is closed and the cool-air 
damper is opened. In this way the temperature of the air 
admitted to each room is regulated by the thermostat in the 
room, and is not affected in any way by the temperature of 
other rooms. 

The most desirable, but also the most expensive, system 
has an individual duct for each room leading directly to the 
heating chamber. Arrangements are made whereby cool air 
and warm air are each supplied to the duct, and the propor- 
tion of each is controlled by dampers connected with ther- 
mostats in each room, as is the case with the double-duct 
system just described. 

It is probable that in the near futm-e we shall see many 
and interesting experiments with new methods of indirect 
heating. Dr. Bass, for example, has made some interesting 
experiments in Minneapolis, in which, instead of having 
large flues in the walls of the classrooms, he has supplied 
individual air inlets at each desk. On the other hand, some 
of our leading school architects have come out strongly in 
favor of doing away with all forms of indirect ventilation 
and depending solely on direct radiators and open windows. 

Fans. When systems of indirect heating were first intro- 
duced, it was customary to rely upon the difference in weight 
between hot and cold air to produce proper circulation. 
Later it was found that the so-called "gravity" system 
worked well only when the difference between the outdoor 



150 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

temperature and that of the air inside was very marked. 
In spring and summer, when the outdoor temperature was 
very mild, ventilation inside the building became increas- 
ingly less adequate, and even when windows were open, 
very little fresh air entered, because the pressure of the air 
outside was not heavy enough to force it in. In order to 
secure adequate circulation of air at all times it has recently 
become the custom to install fans which force the air 
through the rooms, regardless of its temperature. 

There are two methods for using fans. One method is to 
suck the foul air out of the classroom, and thus create a 
vacuum which fresh air rushes in to fill. This is known as 
the "exhaust" method. The fan is placed either in the attic 
or in the basement. The exhaust method was widely in 
favor at one time, but its popularity rapidly waned. When 
the fans were placed in the basement, it was found difficult 
to make them work properly; when placed in the attic, the 
vibration of the machinery was unpleasantly noticeable. 
Moreover, it was found that when the foul air was drawn 
out of the classrooms, its place was taken not only by fresh 
air from windows and flues, but by foul air from corridors, 
basements, and toilets. Air rushed in from all available 
quarters, and it was very difficult to regulate its quality. 

The plenum fan works on exactly the opposite principle. 
Here, instead of drawing foul air away from the classroom, 
fresh air is pumped into the room and drives the foul air 
out through pressure. The plenum system makes it possi- 
ble to regulate the quantity, quality, and warmth of the air 
supplied to each classroom. Occasionally a combination of 
plenum and exhaust fans has been used successfully in 
school buildings. 

Plenum fans are usually located in the basement, and air 
intakes lead from outdoors directly to a large, enclosed 
chamber. The fan placed at the opening of this chamber 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 151 

draws the air from it and forces it up through the various 
ventilating flues throughout the building. The location of 
the air inlet is a matter of supreme importance. All too 
frequently it is either actually below the level of the ground 
outside, or else just even with it. This means that when the 
fan is working the air which is being drawn in from outdoors 
continually carries with it small particles of dirt, and unless 
there is some form of air-cleaning apparatus, this dirt is 
carried up into the classrooms for children to breathe. 

Frequently, also, the air inlet is placed on the north or 
exposed side of the building. Few people realize the differ- 
ence in the temperature of air directly outside the different 
walls of a building. In some cases it is said that there is as 
much as thirty-seven degrees Fahrenheit difference between 
the air on the north and the south sides of the same building 
in winter. During cold weather sometimes as much as a 
seventh of the entire fuel bill could be saved were the air 
inlet on the south side, where the incoming air had already 
been warmed by the sun. In planning the air inlet, then, 
care should be taken to place it high on the school wall on 
the southern side of the building. The air chamber should 
be kept clean and empty. It should never be used for stor- 
age. The fan should be enclosed in a fan chamber. It is not 
uncommon to find school fans, placed on the floor of the 
basement near the boilers, energetically pumping basement 
air into the classrooms. 

Recently a distinctly new method has been used for 
school ventilation by means of fans. Instead of installing 
one large fan in the basement to supply air for all parts of 
the building, a small electric fan is placed in every classroom. 
This fan either draws warmed air up from the basement air 
chamber or cold air directly from outdoors, depending upon 
the way in which it is installed ; and the air supply for each 
classroom may be controlled without affecting that of any 



152 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

other. The fans are practically noiseless; and may be run 
without causing unpleasant draughts or interfering with 
classroom work. 

Air cleaning. Reference has already been made to the 
danger of locating the air inlet near the ground, because it 
picks up dirt and spreads it by means of the fan throughout 
the building. Even where the intake is located high upon 
the wall the air frequently is found to be very dirty. This is 
particularly true in smoky cities, or in communities where 
the ground is dry and dusty. Our better school buildings 
are now installing apparatus whereby air taken into the 
building can be strained and cleaned of all the dirt it carried 
before it is sent into the rest of the building. This cleaning is 
either done by forcing the air to pass through cheesecloth 
bags, or similar dry strainers, or else by causing it to pass 
through streams of water which literally wash the dirt out. 

Air-moisteners. If recent experiments furnish reliable 
evidence, it seems to be true that it is even more important 
to have the air moist than it is to have it clean. The problem 
of moistening air is a most perplexing one, and does not 
seem as yet to have been satisfactorily solved. Many differ- 
ent forms of apparatus have been devised, most of which 
are easy to install and simple of operation. The greatest 
difficulty encountered is that most of the successful air- 
moisteners are costly to run. Apparently the most success- 
ful and also the most expensive types are those which utilize 
the steam spray. Steam from the boilers is allowed to mix 
with the air which is being blown into the room by the fan. 
Although at times people complain that the air so mixed 
carries with it an unpleasant odor, it seems entirely possible 
to remedy the defect. The chief trouble with the system is 
that large amounts of steam are necessary in order ade- 
quately to moisten the air. This air is carried into the school- 
rooms at high rates of speed, and is immediately forced out 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 153 

through the foul-air flues into the outside air in order to 
make room for the large volumes of heated air which follow 
it. This means that the steam from the boilers is being con- 
stantly used up, and the fuel cost for doing this is very 
heavy. 

There are many other forms of air-moisteners. For exam- 
ple, sometimes tanks of water are placed underneath the 
fan. Again, the air is forced through streams of water, which 
moisten and wash it at the same time. Sometimes sheets of 
porous cloth are kept constantly wet by sprays of water 
and the air is forced through them. These devices work 
with varying degrees of success. Usually it is necessary to 
combine the water with the steam, or to provide hot pipes 
which raise the temperature of the water. The chief diffi- 
culty encountered is to make the air take up moisture fast 
enough as it passes up into the room. 

Thermometers. Every classroom in the country should 
be supplied with a thermometer. Every teacher and every 
child should be taught how to read it, and what to think 
about the results it shows. The thermometer should be of 
large size and of good make. Small thermometers are diffi- 
cult to read and frequently get out of order. In placing the 
thermometer care should be taken not to place it too near 
the window, nor, on the other hand, too near radiators or 
fresh-air inlets. Probably the fairest place in the room for 
hanging a thermometer is in the exact center, halfway 
between floor and ceiling. If it must hang on the walls the 
teacher should experiment to find out which particular 
location will most accurately record the average temper- 
ature of the room. 

Thermograph. Better than a thermometer is the ther- 
mograph, which not only shows the degrees of heat in the 
room, but also registers the findings in the office of janitor 
or principal. It is strongly desirable that the janitor should 



154 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

be able to tell the condition of heat in each of the classrooms 
without having to make a personal visit. Thermographs 
can be installed at moderately low cost, and will be of 
immense help to the janitor. 

Thermostats. The thermostat is an instrument which 
is installed in each room, and is so arranged that it auto- 
matically regulates the supply of steam to the radiators in 
that room. It regulates heat, not ventilation. Complaints 
are constantly made that thermostats get out of order. 
Where buildings are properly constructed, however, with 
the double or individual system of fresh-air flues, thermo- 
stats render excellent service. They take responsibility for 
heating classrooms from the shoulders of both teacher and 
janitor and make it an automatic matter. 

Humidostats. The humidostat is similar in principle to 
the thermostat, except for the fact that it registers the 
amount of moisture in the air rather than the temperature. 
When the classroom air becomes too dry, the humidostat 
automatically turns more steam into the fresh-air flue. 
When the moisture becomes too great, the heat is auto- 
matically turned off again. As yet humidostats are rarely 
found in public school buildmgs, but it is probably true that, 
as the importance of securing the proper degree of humid- 
ity is recognized by ventilating authorities, the humidostat 
will take its place beside the thermostat as an important 
and necessary part of school equipment. 

Re-circulation. Probably the most significant of all the 
recent experiments in ventilating and heating problems are 
those aheady mentioned which were carried on by Dr. 
McCurdy in his Springfield, Massachusetts, gymnasium, 
and by Dr. Bass in a public school in Minneapolis. Both of 
these gentlemen investigated physiological and psycholog- 
ical results of re-circulating air. The results of these experi- 
ments in re-circulation seem to show that if air is properly 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 155 

washed, moistened, and kept in motion, it can be used over 
and over again with amazingly satisfactory results. It seems 
possible to eliminate all objectionable odors. The air seems 
fresh and clean throughout the building, and students 
working in rooms where re-circulation is used frequently 
say that they prefer that atmosphere to that foimd in 
buildings where the air is supplied fresh from the outside. 
Careful psychological tests all give the same evidence, that 
students working in re-circulated air do exactly as good 
work and as much of it as students working in fresh-air 
rooms. 

There is, however, one important point on which evidence 
has not yet been made public. The New York Ventilation 
Commission has recently discovered that where air is kept 
cool, moist, and in motion in experimental chambers, the 
amount of carbon dioxide and other gases present seems 
to have no measurable effect either upon physiological or 
psychological responses. Only one important effect of foul 
air has been discovered, but that is an extremely significant 
one. The commission has succeeded in demonstrating so 
clearly that it cannot be successfully controverted that 
foul air tends to diminish appetite> and that the amount of 
food consumed each day by students in fresh-air chambers 
is materially greater than that consumed by students in 
foul-air chambers. Results of this study at once raise a most 
important question with regard to the plan for re-circulating 
air in buildings. Does washing foul air remove its appetite- 
destroying properties? Does mixing ozone with foul air 
have any such effect upon it? If it can be successfully 
demonstrated that re-circulation has no undesirable effect 
upon appetite, it will probably mean that most of our large 
public buildings, including school buildings, of the future 
will be built so that re-circulation is possible. 

Re-circulation provides exceedingly clean air to the class- 



156 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

room because it is washed on every round, and whatever 
dust escapes the first washing is sure to be caught in the 
second. Air-moistening is accompHshed with very small 
expense because very httle heat and moisture are lost in the 
process. The chief saving, however, — and it is an enormous 
saving, — comes in the amount of fuel necessary to heat 
the building. Since most of the air is kept in the building 
there is very little loss of heat. The desirable elements of 
re-circulation are so large and the undesirable elements so 
few that further experiments concerning the effects of re- 
circulation upon appetite seem of paramount importance. 
If re-circulated air can be shown to have no undesirable 
effect upon appetite, it will be difficult not to agree with 
Dr. Gulick when he calls re-circulation "the ideal ventila- 
tion for school buildings." 

What shall schoolmen do? After studying carefully all 
the articles and books which have been written on the 
subject of heating and ventilating, superintendents and 
members of school boards find themselves in a curiously un- 
satisfactory position. They read of many interesting ex- 
periments. They learn that most of the old theories of ven- 
tilation have been proved false. They learn of many new 
principles which apparently are in the process of being 
established. But when the town has to build a new school 
building, to be ready for occupancy withui a year, the 
question of what is the most satisfactory type of heating and 
ventilating apparatus to install is apt to meet with a very 
indefinite and unsatisfactory answer. One architect says 
dispense with all artificial ventilation, rely simply on direct 
heating by radiators, and open the windows. Another goes 
to the opposite extreme and recommends the most com- 
plicated system of fans, strainers, and moist eners. A few 
of the most enthusiastic engineers believe that re-circula- 
tion solves the problem, and strongly recommend that 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 157 

a re-circulation system be established in all new school 
buildings. 

For superintendents and school board members who are 
actually facing the problem of erecting new buildings within 
the coming year, and who cannot wait to find out what con- 
clusions are eventually to be reached by experts, we suggest 
the following plan : — 

First, employ not only a competent architect, but a 
competent heating and ventilating engineer, and if possi- 
ble have the two men work together in devising their plans 
for the buildings. 

Second, ask the engineer if it is not possible to construct 
the building in such a way that one of several different plans 
of ventilation might be used. For example, if the building 
is piped throughout, direct ventilation might be used with 
window ventilation. Inlet and outlet flues could be placed 
in the walls, as is usual with indirect heating and ventilating, 
and space could be left in the basement where a fan might 
be installed. At the same time the building could be so 
constructed that outside air could be shut out and the air 
of the building re-circulated. In a building erected in such 
a way it .would be possible to shift, with minor changes, 
from one system of heating and ventilating to another, de- 
pending upon the findings of those who are now experiment- 
ing with the subject. 

It is probably true that new buildings are not being 
planned in this way, but it is also true that the skillful 
heating engineer, working in cooperation with a competent 
school architect, could devise a system which could be 
readily adapted to meet changes in theory. Many of our 
newest and finest buildings are being constructed of steel 
and cement in such a way that they may be expected to 
be standing and in good condition after perhaps a hundred 
years of service. Even the buildings which are not of mono- 



158 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

lithic construction are expected to last for twenty or thirty 
years at least, and we may be sure that within this time 
methods of heating and ventilating will be radically im- 
proved. Anything which can be done to forecast possible 
changes and construct buildings so that they may easily 
be made when the time comes, will be a wise investment of 
time and money. 

QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 

1. In certain schools steam cocks on radiators are left open, pans of 
water are placed on radiators, or water tanks are attached to stove 
or furnace. How valuable are such devices for humidifying the air? 
If a water pan is provided in the classroom, why is it that children's 
faces may become flushed and dry before the water has been notice- 
ably evaporated? 

2. Why is it that damp air seems hotter than dry in summer and colder 
than dry in winter? 

3. If suffocation is really caused by inability of the body to throw off 
heat, why are people able to lie comfortably completely immersed in 
water of a hot bath for many minutes at a time? 

4. What, if any, changes would have to be made in the laws of your 
State to permit an ideal system of ventilation to be installed in a 
school building? 

5. What are the comparative advantages and disadvantages of the dif- 
ferent types of steam boilers now commonly used? 

6. Make a special study of ventilating flues, noting number, size, loca- 
tion, equalizing chambers, automatic control, legal provisions, costs, 
etc. What are your conclusions as to the most desirable type? 

7. Outline a course of study of ventilation for janitors. What should 
teachers know about the subject? 

8. Make a schedule for a heating and ventilating survey of a school 
system. 

9. The theory of re-circulation has ardent advocates and bitter opponents. 
If it can be proved desirable it will effect amazing changes in school 
practice. On the basis of all the evidence you can gather, what are 
your own conclusions? 

SELECTED REFERENCES 

International Y.M.C.A. College, Springfield, Massachusetts. Ventilation 
Studies. Reprinted from the American Physical Education Review, 
December, 1913. 
Authoritative account of re-circulation experiments at Springfleld, with bibliography. 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 159 

New York State Commission on Ventilation, College of the City of New 
York. 

See various papers and reports published from time to time by members of the Com- 
mission. 

Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. Files and current numbers, 
especially that for March, 1914. 

Thorndike, Edward L., Ruger, G. J., and McCall, W. A.: "Effects of Out- 
side Ah* and Re-circulated Air upon Intellectual Achievement and 
Improvement"; in School and Society, May 6, 1916. 

The printed material on this subject is enormous in amount, and even 
a carefully selected list of the most important references would be too 
long to include here. The student is urged to look through the files 
of the heating and ventilating journals, and to refer to the card in- 
dexes at public libraries under the headings of heating, ventilating, 
air, atmosphere, etc. 



CHAPTER IX 

PROTECTING SCHOOLHOUSES FROM FIRE 

Fire protection unpopular. Fire protection is a distinctly 
unpopular subject. Most people are naturally optimistic. 
They do not like to believe that danger threatens, and they 
would rather take chances than spend time and money 
for various forms of insurance. In the United States as a 
whole at least one school is burned or partially destroyed 
by fire every school day in the year. But as most school- 
houses are only open five hours a day and five days a 
week, most of these fires occur when schools are not in ses- 
sion, and therefore very few school children are burned to 
death. 

Occasionally, however, a terrible tragedy occurs; the 
communities which have followed the policy of taking 
chances are shocked out of their previous indifference, and 
for a few brief months undertake drastic reforms in the 
building of their schoolliouses. The burning of the Lake 
View School at Collinwood, just outside of Cleveland, on 
March 4, 1908, was directly responsible for placing Ohio 
at the head of all the States of the Union so far as concerns 
fire protection legislation. The recent tragedy at Peabody, 
Massachusetts, aroused waves of popular agitation in the 
New England press, but neither Collinwood nor Peabody 
nor the other lesser tragedies has any great permanent 
effect on the popular attitude toward fire protection. Safe- 
guarding public buildings is an expensive process. School 
boards are beset on every side with applications for in- 
creased funds. Building costs already seem prohibitive, and 
the addition of thousands of dollars to secure prevention 



PROTECTING SCHOOLHOUSES FROM FIRE 161 

against loss of life which in all probability will not occur 
seems almost an official extravagance. 

Fire-retarding. If there is not sufficient money to erect 
a completely fireproof building, slow burning or fire-retard- 
ing buildings may be erected which will, at least, give the 
children sufficient time to escape. Corridors and stairs may 
be made of fireproof material, and cut off from the rest of 
the building by fireproof walls. Throughout the building, 
wherever possible, metal furring or tiled linings should be 
used. Where wood furring is necessary, it should be stopped 
off by plaster at the floor and ceiling and midway between. 
Even metal furring should be fire-stopped, to prevent the 
spread of fire by draughts of superheated air or flaming 
gases. In some of the earlier forms of construction the 
hollow spaces between inner and outer walls furnished flues 
whereby draughts might draw the flames from basement 
to attic. Again, the semi-fireproof building should avoid 
all unnecessary wood. The old plan, once so popular, of 
covering the walls with sheaths of wood should be dis- 
carded. Instead, a very satisfactory corridor covering is 
made by hard plaster painted, or with burlap pasted upon 
it. Wooden cornices, picture rails, door trims, and the like, 
should all be avoided, because they not only give extra 
places in which dust may gather, but they provide fuel for 
possible flames. 

Attics. Most modern school buildings are built with flat 
roofs. From a fire-protection point of view this is far more 
desirable than the old-fashioned pitched roof. The latter 
usually extends over the entire space of the school building. 
It is large and low. Unprotected wooden beams are near 
to the floor. Piles of old furniture, paper, records, and the 
like, are piled together in loose heaps. A window is usually 
placed at either end, and long distances stretch between, 
unbroken by walls or partitions. In case of fire the large 



162 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

attic furnishes a flue through which a draught carries the 
flames up through the walls toward the top of the building. 

In buildings already equipped with large, unbroken attics, 
one or more vertical partitions should be erected in order 
to cut off the draught. Stringent orders should be given that 
no furniture or paper of any kind is to be stored in the attic. 
No classes should be held there, and the door leading to the 
attic stairs should be permanently locked. The roof cover- 
ing should be of tile or slate, embedded in a suitable roofing 
composition. After this in order of preference comes metal 
roofing over heavy asbestos paper, or composition gravel 
or slag. Wooden shingles should never be used on any 
school buildings. 

Corridors. In the semi-fireproof building, stairs and cor- 
ridors should be made of fireproof material and separated 
from the rest of the building by fireproof walls and doors. 
In buildings containing over six classrooms, stairs should 
be placed at the extreme opposite ends of the building^, and 
one or more fire partitions erected on each floor between 
them, so that in times of fire the doors may be automatically 
closed and the stairways completely separated one from the 
other. These partitions should usually be made of wire glass 
with self-closing doors held open by fusible hooks, that is, 
hooks which are held by metal links. These links melt at 
about one hundred and thirty degrees Fahrenheit and re- 
lease the hook and door to which it is attached. If the cor- 
ridor is otherwise well lighted, masonry or wood sheathed 
with metal may be used as a partition, but wire glass admits 
light and yet is unbreakable during fire. If the windows of 
the corridors are within thirty feet of any adjacent build- 
ing, they too should be made of wire glass, so that in case 
of fire from without the windows will withstand the heat 
and flames. 

Care should be taken to keep all corridors free of obstrue- 



PROTECTING SCHOOLHOUSES FROM FIRE 163 

tion. Lockers, pieces of statuary, drinking-fountains, and 
the like, if used at all should be placed in recesses, where 
they will not interfere with free passage along the corridor. 
It is usually the better plan to place all decorations in the 
corridors above the heads of the children along the walls. 
Bas-reliefs, framed pictures, and mural decorations are more 
desirable than large statues. 

Assembly rooms. All assembly rooms should be built on 
the ground floor and provided with separate exits, which 
lead directly to the open air. In old buildings, where the 
assembly hall is in the second, third, or fourth story, at 
least two fire escapes should be erected leading from the 
assembly room, but placed as far apart as possible. These 
fire escapes preferably should be of regular stair form, fol- 
lowing all the rules for school stairways, and enclosed in fire- 
proof towers. It should be possible to empty the assembly 
hall in two minutes, without having the occupants pass 
through other parts of the building. 

Doors. Doors of auditoriums, classrooms, vestibules, and 
the like, should invariably swing in the direction of out- 
going classes. In case of panic, where doors are hung to 
swing inward, the crush of person^ trying to escape may 
frequently jam the door so that it cannot be opened. Doors 
which swing outward usually give way quickly under pres- 
sure. If supplied with "panic-bolts," as should be done in 
the case of all outer doors, the heavier the pressure the surer 
they are to open. 

From the point of view of fire protection the common 
method of designing wardrobes, with one door opening into 
classrooms and the other into the main hallway, is open 
to rather serious objection. It is said that in the case of 
the CoUinwood fire the children became panic-stricken, and 
when teachers sought to prevent them from going into the 
blazing hallways by guarding the main classroom door, the 



164 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

children escaped from their control by dashing through 
the wardrobes. There should be only one door by which 
pupils may pass from classroom to corridor. In buildings 
which are not completely fireproof there should also be 
direct access to fire escapes from every classroom. 

Stairs. Every non-fireproof school building of over six 
classrooms should be provided with at least two stairways, 
situated at the extreme opposite ends of the building. Addi- 
tional stairways should be provided as the number of class- 
rooms is increased. These stairways should lead from the 
top of the building to the first floor, and should open di- 
rectly to the outer air. They should never be built to dis- 
charge into the main corridor. Stairs should be built of 
fireproof material, such as metal or concrete. Marble, slate, 
or tile treads crack when too hot, and should never be used 
for stairs unless completely supported underneath by metal 
framework. Wooden stairs supported by metal should 
never be used because they are not fireproof. The stairs 
should be completely enclosed by fireproof walls of such 
materials as metal, concrete, or wire glass. Stairway doors, 
like corridor fire stops should be made of metal and wire glass 
and held open by fusible hooks. In case of fire the links hold- 
ing these hooks melt and allow the doors to close, thereby 
isolating the stairway from flames. Windows lighting the 
stairways within thirty feet of adjacent buildings should be 
made of wire glass. 

Width and handrails. The stairs should not be less than 
four feet nor more than five feet in width between strings. 
The four-foot width for elementary schools is preferable. 
Width is fixed at four feet to prevent a third line of pupils 
going down the center without handrail supports. Hand- 
rails should be provided on each side of the stairs, and 
should be continuous on landings as well as on the stair 
proper. In old buildings, where the main stairways are very 





Fig. 18. Fire Dangers which need Attention 

(a) A dangerous basement 
(6) A fire trap of a stairway 




! 


1^:^-J1 




.Jf 


J 


"^3!^ 


r 


^ 



PROTECTING SCHOOLHOUSES FROM FIRE 165 

wide, handrails should be inserted down the middle of the 
stairs. Wedge-shaped steps or winding stairs are extremely 
dangerous, and should never be used in the construction of 
stairways. In old buildings, winding steps may sometimes 
be replaced by platforms. If the winding stairway is over 
four feet wide, it may be rendered somewhat safer by mov- 
ing the inner handrail several inches toward the outside, so 
that the part of the winder near the inner rail is at least as 
wide as a child's foot. This is only a makeshift, however, 
and should never be used unless other remedies have been 
proved impossible. Wedge-shaped stairs are perilous at any 
time, and during a panic they are almost sure to lead to 
serious accidents. 

Landings. There should be at least one landing between 
floors, and at least three steps must intervene between 
landings. Where only one or two steps are provided, if the 
stairways are poorly lighted and the pupils are in a hurry, 
there is danger that they may fail to see the steps and may 
thereby be caused to stumble. Landings on stairways should 
be shallow, and provided with rounded corners. In old 
buildings, where the corners of the landings are square, 
there is danger that if a panic occurs the weaker children 
will be pushed into corners by older and stronger children, 
instead of being carried along with the crowd down the stair- 
way. Square corners may be rendered safe by placing two 
wooden bars across them, parallel with the floor and about 
two and four feet above it. The stair landing is frequently 
clearly visible from the main corridor, and it has become 
the habit of many school authorities to place pots of flowers, 
ferns, or pieces of statuary on the main landing, so that they 
may be seen by the entering visitor. The artistic efifect is 
frequently undeniably good, but unless these ornaments are 
set in recesses especially prepared for them, they place ob- 
stacles in the path of descending children. Every school 



166 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

principal should remember "that obstructions cause de- 
lays, delays cost lives." 

The stairways of old buildings are frequently their most 
dangerous features and also offer the most perplexing prob- 
lem for reconstruction. Wherever possible they should be 
rebuilt of fire-proof material and isolated from the rest 
of the building by fire-proof walls and doors, as has just 
been described. Where this is out of the question, fireproof 
partitions should be erected across the corridors so as to cut 
off draughts, and commodious outside fire escapes should be 
provided in the metal stair or tower form. In buildings of 
the CoUinwood type, where a large open hall extends through 
the center of the building from the first to the top floor, it 
is practicably impossible either to remodel stairways or to 
cut off draughts. In such cases ample fire escapes should 
be provided at once, careful fire drills should be instituted, 
and the school board should plan to tear down the building 
at the earliest possible date. 

Exits. Stairs should lead directly to the outer exit, and 
the arrangements should be such that a line passing directly 
down the center of the stairway may be projected directly 
through the middle point between the two door posts. 
Where children have to turn just before reaching the door- 
way, their speed of exit is considerably retarded. 

The floor of the landing at the foot of the stairway should 
be on the same level as the floor of the outer vestibule. The 
one or two steps frequently placed here cause stumbling. 
If the platform at the entrance is at some distance from the 
ground, outside stairways should be provided with fairly 
wide platforms; that is, fully as wide as the width of each 
door outside the vestibule. Stairways in the vestibule or 
leading from the vestibule to the ground should be the entire 
width of the vestibule. In old-fashioned buildings space is 
frequently left at the side of the doorway, and a corner 



PROTECTING SCHOOLHOUSES FROM FIRE 167 

formed into which children may be shoved by their stronger 
companions. Where doors are so arranged the dangerous 
corners should be cut off by bars of wood placed across them, 
as was suggested in the paragraph dealing with stair landings. 
The matter of cutting off corners is of greater importance 
than would at first appear. In the case of the CoUinwood fire 
it will be remembered that the main entrance was to the 
left of the stairway instead of being immediately in front of 
it. Blank walls about two feet deep extended from each side 
of the doorway. When the alarm of fire was given, children 
on the first floor escaped, but some of them, eluding the con- 
trol of their teachers, dashed back into the burning building 
in the hope of getting their coats and hats, which had been 
left in the wardrobe. As these primary children tried to 
hurry up the first flight of stairs they were met by descend- 
ing groups of panic-stricken older children. Several of the 
smaller ones lost their footing and fell at the bottom of 
the stairway. They became crushed into the corners and 
against the walls, and their bodies formed a barricade over 
which other children tried to*climb. It is said that even 
after the vestibule doors were forced open, the bodies of 
the children behind the main partition were jammed to- 
gether one on top of the other so tightly that it was impos- 
sible to extricate them. It was at the foot of this stairway 
behind the vestibule partition where most of the one hun- 
dred and seventy-eight children and two teachers lost their 
lives. In Cleveland, the city nearest to the CoUinwood dis- 
aster, the danger of unprotected square corners has been 
so strongly realized that in practically every old-fashioned 
school where square corners still remain wooden bars have 
been nailed across them in the manner just described, form- 
ing an inexpensive but effective protection against a repe- 
tition of the CoUinwood disaster. 
* Railroad doors. The up-to-date school architect provides 



168 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

his building with what are known as "railroad doors"; that 
is, single doors set side by side in separate frames. They 
are called raihoad doors because they were introduced by 
large raihoads in building their stations, where it was found 
that the old-fashioned double doors were inefficient and 
retarded egress. Double doors should never be placed in 
new school buildings. In old buildings they should be ar- 
ranged to swing outward, and should be provided on each 
side with panic bolts or bars. The commonest form of self- 
releasing device is a bar which extends across the entire 
width of each door. When pressure of any kind is exerted 
upon the bar, it automatically draws the bolt from top and 
bottom and allows the door to swing outward. This is com- 
monly known as a "panic bolt.'* It is not sufficient to pro- 
vide one half of a double door with this panic bolt unless 
the other half is so arranged that it will immediately swing 
open as soon as the first half is released. It should be im- 
possible to open only one half of a double door and leave the 
other half closed. The old method of keeping one half of 
the door bolted to the doorsill adds several feet to the width 
of a dangerous corner, and diminishes the exit space by half. 
Reliance should not be placed on the single bolt which 
turns by hand and draws top and bottom bolts. When chil- 
dren are frightened they usually cannot manage any but 
the most simple mechanism. Moreover, bolts of this kind 
frequently become rusted and are difficult for even an adult 
to open quickly. No matter what kind of a fastening is used, 
it should be impossible for any child to find himself locked 
in. Bolts should bar entrance, not exit. 

Fire escapes. The very best form of fire escape is an 
interior, fireproof, well-isolated stairway. When people are 
frightened they rarely think about fire escapes or ladders; 
they rush for the entrance they commonly use. If the ordi- 
nary, everyday stairways can be rendered thoroughly safe 



PROTECTING SCHOOLHOUSES FROM FIRE 169 

in time of fire there is little danger of panic. There should, 
however, be at least two, and in large buildings several, 
fireproof stairways, because there is strong likelihood that 
during a fire one or more of the stairways will be blocked. 

Where the interior stairs cannot be isolated from the rest 
of the building and rendered fireproof, it is necessary to 
provide some form of outside stairway. Probably the most 
satisfactory form is what is known as the "Philadelphia 
tower," so called because it was first introduced in the 
apartment houses of Philadelphia. It consists of a large 
masonry tower on the outside of the building, but with 
separate landings on each floor connected with the different 
apartments by means of balconies. The stairs within these 
towers should answer in all details the requirements of 
modern school buildings. They should be fireproof, they 
should have handrails on each side, platforms should be 
placed between every story, and no wedge-shaped winders 
should be allowed. There is absolutely no excuse for using 
w^edge-shaped steps in any form of fire escape. They are 
usually introduced in an effort to save space, but they are 
difficult to use at any time, and during a fire or panic are 
positively dangerous. The tower fire escape should begin 
at the top of the building, so that firemen may reach the 
roof easily in case of need, and should reach directly 
to the ground. It should be closed at the foot by a door- 
way with a panic bolt on the inside, but no handle on the 
outside. 

The inclined-plane fire escape. There are various other 
forms of fire escapes on the market which utilize the prin- 
ciple of the inclined circular plane. A trough is usually en- 
closed in a tower of metal or masonry. Children enter from 
every floor, sit down on the trough and slide to the bottom. 
Too great acceleration of speed is prevented by the spiral 
twist. A chute at the bottom deposits the child safely on 



170 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

his feet in the open air. The idea of the spiral fire escape is 
ingenious and may at some time prove valuable. They are 
used in many places with considerable degree of success. 
In other places, however, it is complained that the janitor 
uses the chute as a convenient receptacle whereby he may 
send waste paper and other articles from the top of the 
building to the ground floor. In one large public institution 
it was found that the laundress regularly sent down the 
bags of soiled linen. When a fire actually broke out one day 
the patients sliding down the escape were blocked at the 
bottom by heavy laundry bags. In other cases it is said that 
when the troughs are of metal they are not sufficiently pro- 
tected from the weather and soon become rusty. As new 
and improved models are placed upon the market, the danger 
from these causes will probably decrease. 

Essentials of a fire escape. The commonest form of fire 
escape is the metal stairway attached to the side of the 
building. This stairway should be provided with high pro- 
tecting sides of wire fencing. It should have firm landings 
and solid tread and risers, so that children may be prevented 
from growing dizzy by looking down through open spaces. 
Handrails should be provided at each side, and should con- 
tinue around the landings. A metal door should be provided 
at the base. It should be fastened with a bolt which has a 
handle on the inside, but none on the out. This means that 
the door can readily be opened by any one descending the 
fire escape, but access is closed to the intruder. All fire 
escapes should reach completely to the ground. The old 
method of leaving the fire escape with a platform about one 
story high, from which children are supposed to jump, or 
providing a swinging ladder weighted at one end which is 
suspended until the weight of the person comes upon the 
ladder, tends to produce panic in people already frightened 
because of an alarm of fire. 



PROTECTING SCHOOLHOUSES FROM FIRE 171 

The fire escape should be readily accessible from every 
classroom without going into the corridor. It is allowable to 
have doors between classrooms so that the children of one 
may reach the fire escape by going through the next room. 
Escape should be provided on both ends of the building. 
Entrance to the fire escapes should be by means of full- 
length doors taking the place of windows within the class- 
rooms. These doors should be covered with glass so as 
to admit light. The plan of having children climb through 
actual windows is decidedly bad, because it is a difficult 
matter and inhibits speed. Outside of every window should 
be a broad metal platform with a railing around it, so that 
there is no danger of falling. The stairs should lead down- 
ward from this platform in the same manner that stairs lead 
from any landing. 

It should be exactly as easy to descend the fire escape as 
it is to go down the ordinary stairway. There should be no 
danger of dizziness, no feeling of insecurity. Metal ladders 
are almost useless, and should never be placed on school 
buildmgs. It should not be necessary to climb through a 
hole in order to reach the steps. Metal treads without risers 
should be avoided, because they lead to dizziness. A com- 
mon error in placing fire escapes is to have them too near to 
the school building. The old form of ladder, already men- 
tioned, usually clings to the wall itself. Many fire escapes 
pass directly in front of windows, and in case of fire flames 
are apt to break through the opening and encircle the escape. 
If a metal fire escape is provided it should be placed at least 
fifteen feet from the wall of the building. This is required in 
the Ohio code; it should be required everywhere. 

Fire escapes such as those just described are unsightly. 
They cover large areas of the building with metal-work. 
They extend far out into the playgrounds. School boards 
will probably hesitate if asked to erect them. The tower 



172 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

escapes, enclosing well-built fire-proof stairways, are mucli 
more sightly and should generally be recommended. 

Basement. Most school fires are started in the basement. 
They are caused by over-heated pipes, defective furnaces, 
improper disposal of waste or ashes, smouldering matches, 
and the like. If the basement is rendered thoroughly fire- 
proof, the chances are large that any fire started there could 
be held in check for a sufficiently long time to enable all the 
children to escape. In old buildings it is considerably more 
easy to isolate the furnace-room from the rest of the building 
than it is, for example, to render the stairs fireproof. It is 
absolutely essential that the ceiling above the furnace or the 
boilers be covered with some fireproof material. The best 
method is probably to make a concrete flooring above it, 
but even metal sheeting will hold fire for a considerable 
space of time. If the floor over the boiler is of ordinary wood- 
joist construction, the joists should be filled in solid, with 
mortar or mineral wool, and the ceiling should be of thick 
plastering on metal laths wired to metal furring. A better 
plan is to make the entire cellar ceiling fireproof by substi- 
tuting concrete for wood. 

The walls about the boiler-room, furnace, and fuel-rooms 
should be of fireproof construction and solidly built, and 
there should be no general arches opening into the rest of 
the basement. Doors should be covered with metal and 
made self-closing. They should not be provided with hooks 
to hold them open, but should swing shut after any one 
passes through. Where possible all lights in the fuel-room 
and boiler-room should be electric, not gas or kerosene. 
Sometimes an unprotected gas jet extends into the room 
where coal is stored and remains a constant source of danger. 

Special receptacles should be provided for ashes and waste 
paper. It seems self-evident to say that hot ashes should 
never be placed in wooden bins or barrels, yet there are 



PROTECTING SCHOOLHOUSES FROM FIRE 173 

many schools where hot or only partially cooled ashes are 
actually disposed of in this way. Ash and paper bins should 
be lined with metal, and provided with metal covers; and 
arrangements should be made to have them emptied and 
contents removed from the building at least once a week. 
Cotton waste when used should be burned at once, and the 
main supplies should be kept in metal receptacles. 

In building new schoolhouses it is desirable to erect the 
furnace-room, boiler-room, etc., in buildings completely 
isolated from the rest of the structure. This can best be 
done by making separate buildings with underground con- 
nections, but having entrance directly from outdoors in- 
stead of going through the main building. In any case the 
cellar stairs should be made fireproof, and a door covered 
with metal or made of other fireproof material should be 
placed at the head of the stairs. 

Cupboards. In old buildings it is a common matter to 
find storage cupboards located under the stairways. There 
supplies are kept, such as raffia and other material for 
manual training. Books and paper closets are sometimes 
so located. In other instances cupboards under the stairs 
are used as wardrobes for children's wraps. Sometimes the 
janitor uses these places to store his supplies, oils, waste, 
sweeping compounds, etc. It can safely be said that no 
cupboard should ever be located under any stairway even 
in fireproof buildings. In old buildings where they are 
already so built they should be lined with metal, and used 
only for non-inflammable materials. If there is any danger 
of their being used in any other way the cupboard should 
be closed and kept locked. 

Special care should be taken in the matter of storing 
waste, oils, raffia, etc. Fires frequently start in cupboards 
where these materials are stored, and gain a fierce headway 
before they are discovered. Storage-rooms for inflammable 



174 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

material should be rendered fireproof by masonry walls or 
by metal lining. It is not infrequent to find, even in the 
best large city systems, schools in which the janitor stores 
his small supply of coke for starting the fire directly under, 
and in fact touching, wooden stairs leading to the main part 
of the building. Such criminal negligence should not be 
allowed, but it can be prevented only by careful supervision 
and instruction. 

Manual training and domestic science. Manual-training 
and domestic-science rooms are especially apt to be the 
scenes of fire, because in the former case there are large 
supplies of lumber and sometimes paints and stains; in the 
latter gas stoves, coal ranges, stores of fuel, and the like, 
are apt to be carelessly handled and result in fires. Both 
these rooms should be provided with fireproof ceilings, and 
in non-fireproof buildings with direct access to fire escapes. 
It is usually better to place these rooms in the basement or 
on the ground floor and give them direct outside doorways. 
In a domestic-science room it is also important to see that 
small supplies of coal and wood, if kept in the room, are 
placed in fireproof boxes. Large wooden boxes fined with 
metal make satisfactory receptacles. 

Pipes and wires. The CoUinwood fire was probably 
caused by a steam pipe resting on a wooden joist. Steam 
pipes should be properly protected. Whenever they pass 
through partitions or over wooden joists they should be 
bound with a special covering or the wood itself should be 
protected by metal or some other material. It is not enough 
to have the steam pipes just escape touching the wood. As a 
matter of fact, a small area between wood and pipes is some- 
what more dangerous than to have the pipe actually resting 
firmly against the wood. Unless a space of at least three 
inches exists between the two, careful measures should be 
taken to guard against fire. 



PROTECTING SCHOOLHOUSES FROM FIRE 175 

Most modern city buildings are provided with electricity. 
This is considerably safer than gas if the wires are properly 
protected. In most cities regulations are such that defective 
wiring cannot be established with the approval of the light- 
ing inspectors. Gas pipes are apt to leak. In old buildings, 
as the buildings settle, pipes are sometimes jarred apart, 
and the resulting small leaks are sometimes difficult to locate. 
Care should be taken, too, to make sure that the gas meter 
is properly supported. Sometimes, where the meter was 
originally carefully installed, changes are later made, and 
the meter left hanging without anything beneath to hold it 
firmly. In such cases leaks and explosions are exceedingly 
apt to occur. Wiring, piping, and heating should be care- 
fully inspected yearly with a view toward locating possible 
sources of danger. 

Sprinklers. It has already been suggested that most 
fires start in the basement of school buildings. One of the 
most effective means of preventing the spread of fire to other 
parts of the building is to install sprinkler systems in the 
fuel-room, boiler-room, and storage-rooms. As a matter 
of fact, could the expense be met, to install sprinkler systems 
throughout the entire school building would be a most 
effective way of preventing fire. In an old building where 
other means of changing the nature and location of stairs, 
establishing fire stops, etc., seem out of the question, a 
thorough system of sprinkler protection throughout the 
building may render it sufficiently safe to warrant the school 
board in delaying for a time the erection of a new building. 

Each sprinkler head consists of a water pipe ending in 
a sprinkler and sealed with fusible metal. Under unusual 
heat these seals are melted and the water released. Usually 
the system is so arranged that the melting of any one of 
these seals causes bells to be rung all over the building. 
Water rushes through the sprinkler until shut off. In this 



176 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

way the sprinkler is both an automatic fire extinguisher and 
fire alarm, and is one of the best means of fire protection. 
In order to install a suitable sprinkler system care should 
be taken to have the water pressure sufficiently strong and 
to protect pipes from freezing. 

Fire extinguishers. In every building which is not com- 
pletely fireproof chemical extinguishers should be placed in 
the boiler-room, in the storeroom, one at the head of the 
basement stairs, one in each domestic-science room, shop, 
and laboratory, and two on every floor of the building. The 
extinguishers should be recharged at frequent intervals, 
according to the directions given by the manufacturers. 
Fire hose, in lengths sufficient to stretch the entire distance 
of the building, should be placed on swinging racks on each 
floor and in the basement. In very large buildings hose 
should be supplied for each of the corridors. In rural schools, 
where running water is not available, fire pails should be 
kept filled with water on every floor. 

Signals. Fire gongs should be so arranged that alarm 
can be given from every floor or from the basement. In 
many schools it is necessary to go to the principal's office 
in order to ring the alarm. This arrangement often means 
a decided loss of time. Where sprinkler systems are provided 
in the basement or other parts of the building, gongs should 
be arranged so that when the sprinkler heads are melted 
and opened alarm will be given in various parts of the build- 
ing. Signal boxes or some other form of direct communica- 
tion with fire headquarters, other than telephones, should 
be installed within the building on every floor. 

Fire drills. Where school buildings are equipped with 
outside iron fire escapes it should be the custom of teachers 
on the upper floors to dismiss classes on clear days by having 
them descend the fire escape rather than the main stairway. 
This has the advantage of preventing congestion in the 



PROTECTING SCHOOLHOUSES FROM FIRE 177 

corridors, and of accustoming the children to the thought 
of using the fire escape as an outside exit. In cases where 
children have not been regularly drilled in this way, panics 
often result from fear of trying an unfamiliar route. 

The following directions for the organization of fire drills 
were taken from the bulletin published by the Division of 
Education of the Russell Sage Foundation in 1913, entitled, 
Fire Protection in Publio Schools: — 

Dismissal call: Three strokes of gong, repeated three times, 
with pause between each repetition. 

Teachers go immediately to door and open it. Girls form line 
at rear of room, boys at front, ready to pass out together. All 
classes ready in ten seconds. Do not pause for wraps. 

Janitor stands on first floor near front stairs. 

Floor signals: One stroke for first floor, two for second, three 
for third. At one stroke, first-floor classes leave building rapidly 
by nearest exit. At two strokes, second-floor classes leave by near- 
est stairway. At three strokes, third-floor classes leave by nearest 
stairway. Classes pass down, two persons abreast, without hurry, 
crowding, or pushing, and out by nearest exit. Drill shall be so 
arranged that lines of pupils do not intersect. Teachers lead classes. 
Monitors march at end of line, and see that no pupils are left in 
classrooms. Each class starts downstairs when end of class in 
front reaches first landing. Pupils march directly away from 
building. 

Other details: All doors shall be unlocked, and gates unlocked 
and hooked back, during school hours. 

Principals shall see that fire escapes are cleared of ice and snow 
immediately after each storm. 

Arrange signaling apparatus so that it can be sounded from 
every floor. Train all teachers to give signals. 

Call fire drills at least once every two weeks. Have them occur 
without warning — 

when exercises are being held in assembly room; 

during any one of the recesses; 

while all pupils are in classrooms; 

when one or more exits may be supposed to be blocked; 

where the peril may be assumed to be imminent to a particular 
part of the school. 



178 HEAXTHFUI. SCHOOLS 

Drills shall include frequent practice in descending fire escapes. 
Report every drill to school superintendent, giving form of 
drill, and time elapsed between first signal and exit of last person. 

Fire protection pays. There are two parts to the problem 
of fire protection. In the first place, it is desirable to prevent 
flames from spreading; that is, to preserve property. In the 
second place, we must see to it that even though buildings 
may eventually burn down, no lives are lost in the process. 
We must retard the flames for a sufficient period to enable all 
occupants of the building to escape, and we must make 
special provisions against the danger of panic. It is the 
consideration of panic which bids us make straight stair- 
ways instead of curved, avoid wedge-shaped stairs, cut off 
dangerous corners, have doors opening outward, etc. For 
the purposes of retarding fire we use the metal ceilings and 
enclosures in the basement, fire walls on every floor, en- 
closed stairways, and the like. The following quotation, 
taken from the Cyclopedia of Fire Prevention and Insurance 
(vol. I, p. 67), brings home to us the necessity of providing 
quick and easy egress for all school children in case of fire. 
In many communities daily school attendance means daily 
danger of death : — 

We average 

3 theaters 6 apartment houses 

3 public halls 3 department stores 

12 churches 2 jails 

10 schools 26 hotels 

2 hospitals 140 flat buildings, and 

2 asylums nearly 1600 houses 
2 colleges 
burned up or partially destroyed every week in the year. 

Most schools built before 1900, and many built after that 
date, are not even fire retarding. To quote again from the 
Russell Sage Foundation pamphlet: — 



PROTECTING SCHOOLHOUSES FROM FIRE 179 

The use of non-combustible material for exterior walls does not 
insure safety from fire. Wooden walls may blaze within a concrete 
shell as wooden logs blaze within an iron stove. In each case the 
flames are fanned by a draught. Draughts are dangerous. Isolate 
stair wells and air shafts by fireproof walls and doors. Cut the 
attic in half by a partition. Avoid draughts everywhere. Don't 
build your schoolhouse as you build a stove. 



QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 

1. Suppose that a school board member argues that since no child in 
your town has ever lost his life in a school fire, and since schools 
rarely burn down, it is poor business to spend much money on fire pro- 
tection, what would you answer? 

2. Secure plans of the Collinwood school, and criticize from the point of 
view of fire risk. 

3. Where it is proposed to cut long corridors by vertical fire stops, what 
attitude should be taken with regard to the objection that fire stops 
with automatically closing doors will materially retard speed in chang- 
ing classes? 

4. Study a building with wedge-shaped steps in one of the stairways, 
and make plans for rendering the stairway safe without changing the 
location or size of the stair well. 

5. Outline a schedule for use in making a fire-protection survey. 

6. Make a fire- protection survey of the buildings in your town. In 
making your recommendations keep the matter of costs in mind. 

7. What is the difference in insurance rates between non-fireproof 
buildings with and without sprinkler systems? 

8. Should teachers lead their classes in fire drills or follow them? What 
are the arguments on each side? 

9. What is meant by slow-burning construction? How safe does it 
render school buldings? Are other precautions necessary? 

10. How much more costly is a fireproof than a semi-fireproof building? 
What are the cheapest fireproof materials? 

11. If only a limited amount of money is available for fire protection^ 
how can it best be expended? 

12. If the State or local fire inspectors have "passed" a school building 
in your town, is not this sufficient proof that the building is safe? 
Need the school board make any further study of local conditions? 

13. What sort of State laws should be passed for fire protection in public 
schools? Who should make specific requirements? How should they 
be enforced? Should private schools come under the act? What 
about inspection? 



180 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 



SELECTED REFERENCES 

Ayres, Leonard P., and May. School Buildings and Equipment. Cleveland 

Education Survey. (1916.) 
Ayres, May, and Cooper, Frank Irving. Safeguarding Schoolhouses from 

Fire. Published by American School Board Journal. (1913.) 
Brookline, Mass., School Survey report, 1917. 
Faneuil Hall Committee. Safeguarding Schoolhouses from Fire. Published 

by the Fire Prevention Commissioner for the Metropolitan District 

of Massachusetts. (January, 1916.) 
Russell Sage Foundation, Division of Education. Fire Protection in Public 

Schools. (New York, 1913.) 
Engineering Magazine. New York City. See back files and current 

numbers. 



CHAPTER X 

KEEPING THE SCHOOLHOUSE CLEAN 

The janitor. The school janitor is at once one of the most 
important and least understood members of the educational 
staff. He is directly charged with maintaining hygienic con- 
ditions in the schoolhouse; such matters as heating, ventila- 
tion, cleaning, adjustment of school furniture, etc., rest upon 
his shoulders; and yet his work is for the most part un- 
studied and unstandardized. Not only do the qualifications 
of janitors vary immensely from city to city, but actually 
within the city itself janitors may range from rather igno- 
rant men of all work to highly skilled engineers. Sometimes 
they are appointed on the basis of competitive or civil- 
service examinations, and sometimes appointment is made 
without any examination, but simply according to the whim 
of the school board. In a few cities there is a head janitor 
who has supervision over the others. In most communities, 
however, janitors are subjected either to no supervision at 
all, or else nominal supervision by some person in the super- 
intendent's office. 

In like manner the pay of the janitor depends upon no 
recognized principle, but in most cases varies from school to 
school according to some inherited plan. It is not at all 
unusual to find janitors with large heating plants and many 
square feet of floor area being paid considerably smaller 
amounts than janitors with simpler heating plants and 
smaller buildings. Some janitors are given assistants and 
others are not, and there seems to be no recognized basis for 
number of workers or hours of work. The whole question of 
the employment of janitors is seriously neglected. 



182 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

If school buildings are to be properly run and cared for, 
each system should adopt for itself a minimum standard, 
below which new janitors shall not be allowed to fall. 
Qualifications of past experience, training, and the success- 
ful passing of practical examinations should be carefully 
outlined. Janitors already in the service who have not these 
qualifications should be given help and opportunity to im- 
prove their standing, and if unable to meet the new require- 
ments after a fair interval should be eliminated from the 
system. A committee should be appointed to study the 
work of janitors in the various schools, and on the results of 
this examination a schedule of pay should be made up. In 
making this schedule probably the greatest weight should 
be given to the complexities of the heating plant. The most 
able janitors should be in charge of the most complex heat- 
ing system, and should be paid the largest sum. Somewhat 
less important, and to be given somewhat less weight in 
fixing salaries, is the matter of the number of square feet of 
floor space. Some plan should also be devised for increasing 
wages from time to time, according to years of service and 
increased proficiency. Assistants should be provided so that 
the work that needs to be done can be done without unduly 
long hours or the use of extra labor. The actual number will 
usually be decided on the same basis as the amount of pay. 

Provision should be made so that janitors already in serv- 
ice may receive training and education in matters of school 
hygiene. As is the case with the school teacher, janitors 
should be made to realize the professional importance of 
their work. They should be encouraged to meet in confer- 
ences to discuss various points of interest; they should be 
addressed by specialists in heating, ventilation, hygiene, 
and the like; they should, from time to time, hold joint con- 
ferences with teachers and principals, in order that each 
may understand the point of view of the other; and some 



KEEPING THE SCHOOLHOUSE CLEAN 183 

form of official recognition should be given by the superin- 
tendent and the board for exceptional service. The janitor's 
position is important. If he is to carry on his work success- 
fully he must have the advice and interest of his supervisory 
officers, and should realize the importance of the task with 
which he is charged. The intelligent and efficient school 
janitor is one of the most successful allies of the school 
physician and the nurse. 

How diseases are transmitted. Schoolrooms must be 
cleaned in order to prevent children from becoming sick. 
Unclean schoolrooms may produce illness in two ways. 
They may aid in transferring germs from one child to an- 
other, as is the case with diphtheria, scarlet fever, and the 
like, or they may themselves be the cause of physical dis- 
turbances. In this latter case, for example, the unwashed 
window may produce serious eye-strain; dust on a school- 
room floor may pierce the delicate lining of the lungs and 
bring about such a condition that tuberculosis may easily 
find lodgement. 

There are many theories concerning the spread of disease. 
In earlier days it was thought that germs flew through the 
air from one person to another; and various fumigating 
preparations were used in order to fill the air with gases 
which would kill the escaping germs. Then again it has been 
thought that germs find their way to articles of clothing, 
furniture, wall-paper, and the like, and lodge there for long 
periods of time, varying from a few days to several months 
or years. For example, it was long considered true that the 
tuberculosis germ lodged in wall-paper or plaster of rooms 
in which patients had lived and so preserved the disease 
from month to month, with the result that houses became 
veritable death traps for new tenants. This second method 
of disease transmission by germs on articles over a consider- 
able period of time is known as transmission by fomites. 



184 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

The third and most recent theory of disease transmission is 
that germs are carried by direct contact; that is, either by 
one sick person touching a well person, or by new and still 
living germs being carried in particles of mucus, flakes of 
skin, or the like, from one person to another. In this latter 
case little time is supposed to elapse during the process of 
transmission. 

The problem of transmission of contagious diseases is still 
in an experimental stage. Absolute results have not yet 
been secured, but in general it may be stated that the evi- 
dence points toward very little transmission by means of the 
air. It is noted, for example, that persons with different 
contagious diseases are frequently treated in the hospital 
in one large room, separated only by screens or cubicle walls. 
Were air transmission a common thing we should expect to 
have patients in these hospitals come down with many 
different contagious diseases. As a matter of fact, this very 
rarely happens, and when it does happen the explanation 
is usually easily found in some other source. 

Modern science is also beginning to believe that trans- 
mission by means of articles of clothing, furniture, and the 
like, which have become infected several days or hours pre- 
vious, is considerably less frequent than has been thought. 
It is pointed out, for example, that thousands of people 
use the books in the public libraries. Undoubtedly every 
year many hundreds of these books become infected by 
contagious-disease germs. Probably disease is sometimes 
spread in this way, but certainly such transmission cannot 
be general, for if it were we should have wave after wave of 
epidemics sweeping through the city, which could in time 
be traced to the public library. Similarly, very little disease 
seems to be transmitted by metal or paper money, although 
both are frequently contaminated by being carried between 
the lips, crushed in the hands, etc. Physicians do not deny 



KEEPING THE SCHOOLHOUSE CLEAN 185 

the possibility of transmitting disease by this indirect 
method. In fact, there are certain undeniable cases on 
record where diseases have been so transmitted. Anthrax, 
for example, has apparently been proved to be transmitted 
through hides and furs which have sometimes been packed 
away for many months. It is, however, increasingly appar- 
ent that disease transmission through fomites is exceedingly 
rare. 

Stories are constantly being told of "scarlet fever rooms" 
and "tuberculosis death houses" which would seem to prove 
the frequency of fomite transmission, but upon careful 
analysis and examination it is found that the disease was 
actually contracted through direct contact. Bedbugs, for 
example, are beheved to be responsible for keeping disease 
alive for months by living in cracks of the woodwork, and 
handing the germs down from one generation to another 
until, by passing them on to a susceptible human victim, 
they give to the house its grim reputation. 

There are cases, too, of human "carriers" who, while ap- 
parently in the best of health, are actually the hosts of dis- 
ease germs which thrive and multiply in their bodies and are 
constantly being given off in bowel or nasal discharge, and 
so spreading the disease among other people. Doctors are 
coming to believe that many of our most mysterious epi- 
demics are spread by these human carriers, who, showing 
no sign of the disease themselves, are extremely difficult to 
locate. It is by contact transmission that most contagious 
diseases are spread, and it is against this form of transmission 
that the public school must constantly be on guard. For this 
reason medical inspection has established a system whereby 
children showing the preliminary symptoms of any of the 
common contagious diseases are immediately excluded on 
suspicion, and cannot return to the classroom until permis- 
sion has been given by a physician. In this way the greatest 



186 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

source of danger is immediately removed. When through 
some oversight a child who is in the early stages of con- 
tagious disease is overlooked and allowed to remain in the 
schoolroom, he becomes a source of danger to his companions. 

In the old days of the common drinking-cup and the 
common towel contagious disease was passed from one child 
to another very rapidly, because the germs had no oppor- 
tunity to die before the next child used the utensil. The life 
of the germ is usually very short, although there are some 
notable exceptions to the rule. Many germs are killed by a 
few hours' exposure to the simlight. The chief danger in the 
classroom is that of immediate infection before the germs 
have had time to dry or become weakened. The most serious 
danger is the child who coughs and sneezes. Very many of 
the common diseases of childhood begin with such coughs or 
colds, and the germs are spread through minute droplets of 
mucus which are sprayed into the air. These tiny drops fall 
on the siu'rounding desks, floor, chairs, and the like, and 
may easily be transferred while still moist and alive to the 
hands and faces of near-by children. It is because of the 
very great danger of spreading disease by means of mucus 
that we insist that every schoolroom be so placed that it 
may be flooded with sunshine at least once a day. Sunshine 
kills germs faster than almost any other germicide. 

Diseases are also probably very frequently spread through 
the common toilet. Toilets are often contaminated, even 
when children are taught to be careful. Germs are found 
upon the seats, walls, and doors of the toilets, and upon the 
handles of outer doors. It is because of the danger of con- 
tagious diseases that we have urged in an earlier chapter 
the supreme importance of providing wash-basins with hot 
water and soap near or directly outside the entrance door 
to every toilet-room. Were such facilities provided and 
inspection made sufficiently severe, so that all children 



KEEPING THE SCHOOLHOUSE CLEAN 187 

were forced to wash their hands after using the toilet, many 
of the contagious diseases of childhood would probably be 
prevented. 

Prevention of contagious diseases. Contagious diseases 
may, then, be kept from spreading, first, by a careful system 
of medical inspection which excludes every child who shows 
suspicious early symptoms, and insists that he receive a 
physician's certificate of health before being readmitted to 
the classroom. 

In the second place, epidemics may be prevented by flood- 
ing the classrooms with sunlight for a considerable portion 
of every day. It is a very common habit of the school jan- 
itor to pull down the curtains of the classrooms as soon as 
the daily cleaning is over, and leave them down until classes 
open the following morning. He does this partly from habit, 
and partly in order to keep his windows clean. In many 
homes the unused rooms are always kept darkened. One 
finds it this way, too, even in our best hotels. The practice 
has become traditional with housekeepers, chambermaids, 
and janitors. Dust, too, is apt to rise from the floor and 
settle on the windows, and drawing the shades keeps much 
of it off. It will probably be necessary to pass a rigid rule 
concerning this matter of drawing shades if the classrooms 
are to receive the proper amount of sunshine. Rooms facing 
the east should be open to the sunlight from very early in 
the morning until class time. Rooms on the west should be 
open to the sun at noon when the children are not there, 
and from the time school closes in the afternoon until sunset. 
During these hours the shades on the classroom windows 
should be rolled tight, so that the entire window is left free 
to admit sunlight. Daily exposure to the sun is of far more 
value than most forms of germicidal preparation. If janitors 
are provided with a sufficient number of helpers, so that 
they can clean the windows frequently, they will not seri- 



188 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

ously object to this rule; whether they object or not the mle 
should be strictly enforced. It is one of the most economical 
ways of preventing diseases among school children. 

Cleaning of schoolroom floors. Dust is one of the most 
dangerous factors to be considered in school hygiene. It was 
formerly thought that dust carried many pathogenic mi- 
crobes. Dr. Alvin Davidson, for instance, is said to have col- 
lected more than one hundred million germs in the single 
sweeping of an ordinary schoolroom. The New York Com- 
mittee on School Inquiries, on the other hand, found that 
while there are many bacteria in schoolroom dust, very few 
of them are harmful. The same committee came to the 
conclusion that "in a dry, well-lighted room, pathogenic 
bacteria live but a short time and do not propagate or mul- 
tiply." 

While it is probable that dust does not carry many virulent 
germs, it is generally agreed that dust is decidedly harmful 
because of the sharp particles it contains. Statistics show 
that there are approximately six times as many deaths from 
consumption and pulmonary diseases in the trades in which 
sharp dust is made as from the occupations of farming, 
planting, and raising cattle. This is because the sharp dust 
particles are breathed into the lungs. They irritate the mem- 
brane of the throat and lungs and frequently assist in spread- 
ing infection. Whether or not the tuberculosis germ is actu- 
ally carried by dust is an undecided question, but it seems 
certainly to be true that tuberculosis flourishes in dusty 
trades. The lining of the lungs having become irritated, the 
tuberculosis germ finds a ready reception. Tuberculosis is 
the cause of death more often among teachers than among 
workers in all the other fields together. Moreover, it is com- 
monly estimated that between one third and one half of all 
school children have tuberculosis at some time during the 
school period. This probably means that schoolroom dust is 



KEEPING THE SCHOOLHOUSE CLEAN 189 

largely responsible for the high tuberculosis mortality. Most 
of the classroom dust settles upon the floor, and therefore 
methods of cleaning schoolroom floors are particularly 
important. 

Most classroom floors are made of wood. When properly 
selected and laid, wood takes a good polish, is not excessively 
expensive, holds screws of chairs and desks firmly, is pleas- 
ant to walk upon, and is easily cleaned. If wooden floors 
are of soft wood and are poorly laid, they wear out rapidly. 
Under frequent washings the wood shrinks, and leaves 
cracks in which dust may gather. It is apt to break into 
sharp splinters, and once having become broken it is very 
hard to keep clean. Wooden floors should be of hard wood, 
straight-grained, and free from pitch, rosin streaks, or other 
defects. Well-seasoned oak is probably the best wood for 
schoolroom use. Hard maple is good, and hard pine is also 
in favor. The boards may range from two to two and one- 
half inches wide; but they should not be wider, because it is 
difficult to lay them properly in wider widths. Boards should 
be carefully matched so that no cracks are left between 
them, and nails should be inserted in such a way that the 
wood is not marred and holes are not left. Merely to select 
good material for floors is not enough. Careful supervision 
should be exercised over the workers as the floors are laid. 
Improper laying or naihng will cause trouble for years 
afterward. 

There has recently been noticed a distinct tendency to 
use linoleum for schoolroom floors. Cheap grades of lino- 
leum wear out quickly, show marks, and are expensive. 
A good quality of battleship linoleum, treated with preserva- 
tive and glued permanently on a cement surface of concrete 
construction is quiet, non-porous, and almost indestruct- 
ible. However, it will not hold screws and therefore cannot 
be used for the regular fixed furniture. Where furniture is 



190 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

not fastened to the floor, linoleum is an excellent covering, 
is easily cleaned, and is not excessively expensive. Cement 
floors are hard, cold, and will not hold screws. They are 
undesirable for classroom purposes. Cement may, however, 
be used as the floor base if it is covered with wood or with 
linoleum. 

The floors in many of the newer buildings are being laid 
in what is called "hospital construction"; that is, the joining 
of the floor and wall is curved rather than made a straight 
corner, so that dust cannot collect there. When carefully 
made such construction is excellent. In most cases, however, 
it is found that this joining is poorly made. The wood 
shrinks away from the floor and deep grooves are left which 
quickly fill with dirt. Careful supervision is needed in order 
to have this feature of hospital construction an advantage 
rather than a defect. 

Sweeping and dusting. Dry sweeping is the most common 
method of cleaning schoolroom floors. Brushes and brooms 
are used to gather the dust into piles and it is then picked 
up and carried away. The difficulty with dry sweeping is 
that it stirs up dust and does not remove it. With each 
stroke of the broom dust is whirled into the air in large 
quantities. There it floats for a time, and as the air becomes 
quiet the dust gradually settles down upon floors and furni- 
ture as it was before. In the same way the common method 
of dry dusting with cloths or feather brushes is ineffective, 
because it usually stirs up the dust, but does not remove it 
from the room. The feather duster is particularly undesir- 
able and should be prohibited. 

One of the best ways to sweep floors is to use some prepa- 
ration which will catch the dust. For example, if sawdust, 
mixed with water sufficiently to make it slightly damp, is 
sprinkled on the floors in sweeping, the little particles of 
sawdust will gather the dust and hold it so that it may be 



KEEPING THE SCHOOLHOUSE CLEAN 191 

gathered into a pile. This is the same principle as was used 
by our New England mothers when they sprinkled damp 
tea leaves on the carpet or on cold mornings brought in 
large handfuls of snow, sprinkled it quickly over the floors, 
and swept it up before the heat of the room could melt it. 
In each case the purpose was to make the dust sufficiently 
damp so that it could not rise in the air, but could be swept 
into small heaps and could be carried away. There are 
many so-called dust-absorbing compounds on the market. 
These are usually made with a basis of sawdust or paper, 
mixed with water, oil, wax, salsoda, chloride of lime, sulpho- 
napthol, formaldehyde, carbolic acid, or sand. Some of 
these preparations are very expensive, but with a little 
ingenuity a home-made preparation may be manufactured 
which will be really satisfactory. 

Accordmg to general instructions a few handfuls of the 
sweeping compound are thrown on the floor and then pushed 
from place to place, so that the entire surface is gradually 
covered by the compound and broom. As a matter of fact, 
it will frequently be found that janitors who are using the 
compound do so in a most haphazard manner. Long halls 
and corridors are usually fairly well swept in this way, but 
in classrooms, where there is fixed furniture, janitors com- 
plain that small piles of the sweeping compound are apt 
to gather around the legs and standards of the furniture. 
This difficulty k, in fact, so serious that only a few of the 
most conscientious janitors actually use the sweeping com- 
pound in any effective manner when sweeping classrooms. I 

In dusting, as in sweeping, it is desirable to secure some 
method whereby the dust can be weighted so that it will 
not fly out into the air during the process. Instead of using 
the feather duster, then, woolen or cotton cloths may be 
secured and slightly moistened either with oil, wax, or water. 
Care should be taken not to make these cloths too wet, 



192 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

because in such a case they will leave streaks upon the 
blackboards and furniture. Dusting cloths should be barely 
damp enough to catch and hold dust. Most of the dustless 
dusters now sold in the department stores are prepared in 
this way. A piece of cheesecloth is dipped in some oil prepa- 
ration, and then allowed to become nearly dry. Enough oil 
remains in its meshes to catch and lay the dust. 

Scrubbing and care of floors. A few years ago it was uni- 
versally believed that the only effective way to clean a floor 
was by a general application of hot water and soap. Much 
of the janitor's time, and usually much of the time of his 
wife also, was spent on hands and knees scrubbing the 
schoolroom floors. It is probably true that water and soap 
are effective removers of germs and dirt. It is also pain- 
fully true that most washing is not especially effective. 
This is particularly the case in old schoolrooms, where on 
account of previous washings the wood has become swollen, 
and then has shrunk so that it leaves large cracks between 
the boards. In future scrubbings the muddy water trickles 
down between these cracks, and there dries and leaves 
cakes of mud; so that it is a fairly common thing in old, 
badly cared-for buildings to see little clouds of dry dust 
spring up from between the boards whenever persons walk 
across the room. Washing has a very bad effect upon most 
wooden floors. It widens the cracks and usually causes the 
wood to roughen, so that large splinters appear. There are 
many different compounds recommended for use in washing 
floors, such as various washing-powders, soda, ammonia, 
sulpho-napthol, formaldehyde, oxalic acid crystals, hard 
soap, soft soap, muriatic acid, and coal oil. There are doubt- 
less times when the use of some or all of these preparations 
may be desirable. 

It is common in schools, where floors of classrooms and 
corridors are oiled or waxed, to find a rule demanding that 



KEEPING THE SCHOOLHOUSE CLEAN 193 

floors of kindergartens and gymnasiums be washed daily or 
weekly. This rule is usually made in order that floors may 
not be slippery, so that the children will not fall, and so that 
in the kindergarten children may sit down upon the floor 
without soiling their clothes. So far as the latter objection 
holds, it is true that the common method of oiling floors 
with heavy thick oil is harmful to clothing, but when care- 
fully done oil and wax may be applied in such a way that 
they will leave no stains even upon clean white handker- 
chiefs when passed along the surface of the floor. In the 
gymnasium it should also be noticed that when the floors 
are washed they frequently leave the small muddy deposit 
just described. This means that when exercises are carried 
out upon these floors small puffs of dust are constantly aris- 
ing and entering the lungs of the students. If very carefully 
applied, the lighter forms of oil may be used in gymnasiums 
without making the floors slippery. 

Use of oil and tar. There can be little doubt that oil and 
wax properly applied make the best finish for schoolroom 
floors. This does not mean, however, that all rooms where 
oil has been tried have shown better results than the ordi- 
nary scrubbed wood floors. When the plan of using oil first 
came in, the commercial product was a very heavy, dark 
oil, thick and rather sticky. When generously applied to the 
floors, this oil immediately made a most unpleasant sur- 
face. Teachers complained that their skirts and the skirts of 
the older girls were seriously stained and soiled around the 
bottom. The dirt of the schoolroom was ground into the 
oily surface until it formed a thick and unpleasant layer 
upon the floor. Footsteps of children walking back and forth 
were clearly shown upon the surface. In many communities 
the unpleasant results of early oilings were so serious that 
any suggestion of using oil will even now bring most emphatic 
protest from teachers, principals, and janitors alike. 



194 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

The oil selected for schoolroom use should be a light oil, 
of rather thin consistency. Most light oils may be applied 
in either of two ways. They may be spread over the floors 
by means of a brush holding an oil reservoir or they may 
be sprayed over the floor by an atomizer. Before the first 
application the schoolroom floor should be thoroughly washed 
and dried. The oil should then be applied to every part of 
the surface in a thin layer, and thoroughly rubbed hi with 
woolen cloths. After this the room should be closed, and 
if possible the floor should not be used for from five to ten 
days. This means that such a first application must be 
made either in the summer, Christmas vacation, or the 
spring holidays. Even when heavy oils are used, if they 
are applied very sparingly and well rubbed in, most of the 
trouble connected with them will disappear. 

After the initial oiling water should never be applied to 
the floor. It will usually be found that the dust on the floor 
gathers to itself just enough oil to keep it from rising; that 
is, it acts as a dustless sweeping compound. The dust so 
weighted may be gathered in a pile by a soft bristle brush, 
easily collected, and removed from the room. It is fre- 
quently found desirable to use the lighter oils in connection 
with a spray about once a week, very sparingly in each 
room, so that a little of the oil sprayed into the air descends 
upon the floor and acts as an additional help in weighting 
dust. 

In some European countries floors are covered with a thin 
preparation of tar instead of oil. Tar catches the dust in 
much the same way that the oiled floor does. It is easily 
cleaned, cheap, and antiseptic. It is very easily applied, 
since it is merely coal tar laid on thinly while hot, and allowed 
to cool. The chief argument against the use of the tarred 
floor is that it is dark, unpleasant to look at, and frequently 
has a disagreeable odor which lasts for a long time. 



KEEPING THE SCHOOLHOUSE CLEAN 195 

Cleaning walls and blackboards. It should be possible 
to wash the schoolroom walls. Such washing is rarely nec- 
essary, but, especially when contagious disease is present, 
may sometimes be desirable. Usually dustless dusters such 
as those already described may be used on the parts of the 
walls within ordinary reach. Such dusting should be done 
about once every month. 

Blackboards are best cleaned by dry erasers of good qual- 
ity. They should usually be washed only when the marks 
of chalk cannot be removed in any other way. Frequent 
washing hurts all but the very best grade of slate or glass 
blackboards. When boards are washed, they should be 
quickly rubbed dry with a woolen cloth. A very slightly 
dampened square of cheesecloth will often be found effec- 
tive in removing the gray appearance left by chalk. Real 
washing need only be rarely resorted to, and soap should 
never be used because it leaves an oily surface upon which 
the chalk will not write. Chalk trays should be cleaned 
twice a day in rooms where the boards are frequently used. 
The chalk should be carefully collected from the trays by 
means of dampened cloths. At the end of each school day 
the erasers should be removed from all classrooms and 
cleaned. Such cleaning should never be done in the old- 
fashioned method described in an earlier chapter, by which 
children are given the privilege of cleaning erasers as a re- 
ward of merit, and when school is over stand by an open 
window beating erasers together, two and two, with the 
chalk dust blowing straight back into the room and into the 
lungs of the pupil. There are many mechanical machines 
on the market in which erasers can be placed in large quan- 
tities and rapidly cleaned. For all but the smallest and 
most poverty-stricken schools it is exceedingly desirable 
that some such machine be secured. If erasers must be 
cleaned by hand the work should be done by an adult person 



196 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

outdoors, and at a considerable distance from the school- 
room. 

Keeping toilets clean. Since many of our most serious 
disease germs are found in toilet-rooms, the cleaning of these 
rooms assumes particular importance. This would be some- 
what less true were toilet-rooms built as they should be, 
facing the south and exposed to the rays of the sun the 
greater part of the school day. Unfortunately it has long 
been the rule, and still is in many places, to put the toilet- 
rooms in that part of the basement which is not wanted for 
other purposes. All too frequently the toilet-rooms face 
north and have such small windows that even were the sun 
on that side of the building, the rays would rarely be ad- 
mitted. The walls of the toilet-room should be made so 
that they can be washed down with hose. This means that 
all toilet-room walls and ceilings should have a glazed 
surface; and that the floor of the toilet-room should slant in 
such a way that water will readily run off into a drain. If 
toilet-rooms are so constructed, it will be a comparatively 
easy matter to wash down walls, ceilings, and floors with a 
hose once a week. 

The toilet fixtures themselves should receive much more 
frequent attention. It is probably not too much to demand 
that at the close of every school day the toilet-seat, the 
handle of the toilet-door, toilet-chain, and handle of the 
main door leading to the toilet-room should all be washed 
with a germicidal preparation, such as carbolic acid, formal- 
dehyde, or the like. It is in the toilet-room more than in any 
other part of the building that virulent germs are freely 
deposited on surfaces likely to be touched by other children 
and unexposed to the germicidal properties of sunshine and 
air. Until toilet-rooms are properly built, their cleaning 
should receive exceedingly careful attention. 

Other parts of the building. Where oiled floors are used 



KEEPING THE SCHOOLHOUSE CLEAN 197 

the desks and chairs of each classroom should be dusted 
once a week. In cases where dry sweeping is still the method, 
such dusting should occur after every sweeping. Halls, 
entrances, stairs, and cloak-rooms should all be swept at 
the close of each day. Sewing, cooking, manual-training, 
and other rooms where special dirt is likely to occur should 
be swept after each class period. In some cases this work 
is profitably attended to by the students in the classes. 

Special care should be taken in the open-air classes with 
children who may be affected by the first stages of tuber- 
culosis. Receptacles should be provided into which these 
children may spit, and special care should be taken to see 
that the room is flooded with sunshine each day. 

In cases where contagious disease has been discovered in 
the classrooms, it is probably well to wash the surround- 
ing floor and the desk and chair with an antiseptic solu- 
tion before allowing any other child to sit there. 

Cleaning the windows. It is almost universally true that 
schoolroom windows are not washed with sufficient fre- 
quency. When we think about the importance of lighting 
in the classroom, we must realize that it is of little use to 
provide specified amounts of glass area as compared with 
floor area, unless that glass be kept clean after it is put in. 
In most systems it is the custom to wash windows three 
times a year. This is rarely enough. The actual rules must 
vary with the locality. It is entirely conceivable that in cer- 
tain of our most smoky manufacturing cities the class-room 
windows should be washed on the outside every day; and 
it is certainly true that in most cities and towns windows 
should be washed at least every two weeks. If it is sug- 
gested to the average janitor that windows be washed with 
any such frequency, he will at once violently object. It is 
hard enough for him to keep the fires going in winter and 
to sweep the floors every day without having this extra and 



198 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

exceedingly tedious job added to his routine. The fact 
that the janitor objects, however, should be reason not for 
allowing windows to go dirty, but rather for providing a 
sufficient number of helpers so that they may be cleaned 
without undue hours of labor on the part of any of the school 
employees. 

Vacuum cleaners. It is only within the past few years 
that the vacuum cleaner has become serviceable, durable, 
and comparatively inexpensive. At the present time clean- 
ers are on the market which do their work so effectively that 
they may be regarded as exceedingly desirable for all new 
school buildings. As is the case in the discussion of oiling 
schoolroom floors, much of the opposition to the vacuum 
cleaner has arisen because either the tools provided were 
poorly constructed or else the janitor has not been taught 
how to use the machine. The arguments in favor of the 
vacuum cleaner are in general these: When properly in- 
stalled and of good type such cleaners remove the dirt 
entirely from the rooms instead of allowing it to stay and 
settle back after the air has become quiet. They do not stir 
up dust during the process. The room need only be cleaned 
once. No dusting need follow. Walls and ceiling may be 
cleaned without marring the surface, and without the stain 
which often comes with the use of soap and water. Where 
floors are old and cracks are wide, the dust may be removed 
from cracks and crevices, as well as from the outer surface. 
Vacuum cleaners can and should prove a great saving to the 
school janitor. As experimentation continues and new tools 
are devised especially for classroom purposes, this will be- 
come increasingly true. 

Types of vacuum cleaners. There are various types of 
vacuum cleaners, but all may be divided into two general 
groups, the portable and the stationary outfits. Portable 
machines are designed to be operated by hand, or by small 



KEEPING THE SCHOOLHOUSE CLEAN 199 

motors attached to the electric light socket. The former are 
especially recommended by manufacturers to the school 
committees of rural districts, where the schools are not fur- 
nished with electric light systems and cannot very easily 
run their own dynamos. In general it may be said that, 
while there are a few possible exceptions, most vacuum 
cleaners of the portable type are neither durable nor effec- 
tive. They are apt to return the air only partly cleaned 
to the room from which it was taken. Usually they have not 
sufficient suction power to pick up all the dirt on the floor. 

Stationary outfits are usually more expensive than the 
portable. They must be installed in the lowest story in the 
building, and the building must then be piped throughout. 
This means that it is very difficult to install a station- 
ary outfit in old buildings. The exhaust of the stationary 
vacuum cleaner is usually through the main chimney. A 
powerful electric motor or other driving mechanism runs 
the vacuum-producing pump. The pump draws air through 
pipes containing filters for straining out the dirt. Exhaust 
air is drawn into the chimney. At regular intervals the 
heavier dirt which is collected is removed from the tank by 
hand. Cleaners vary from one sweeper to twelve sweepers 
or larger, depending on the number of men who can work 
at once. Most schools need only a one- or two-sweeper plant. 

While vacuum cleaners vary widely in particular designs 
they usually belong to one of four distinct types. The first 
is the turbine type. Here suction is produced by one or more 
disc fans or propeller steel blades mounted on a shaft, with 
baffle plates between the blades. The whole is enclosed in a 
cylinder. Such a pump runs at very high speed, and sucks 
the air through much on the screw pruiciple. The dust is 
separated by centrifugal force. These pumps are very simple 
in construction and durable, but must be run at high speed. 

The second type of pump is known as the rotary pump. 



200 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

It is very similar to the turbine in general principle. An 
eccentrically mounted shaft is provided with oscillating 
blades, and the whole is included in an outer casing. It is 
possible to run the rotary pump at very low speed and secure 
strong suction. However, it has many bearing siu-faces and 
is liable to injury. Cleaners of this type are usually fitted 
with fabric bags for dust separators, which become clogged, 
tear, and otherwise interfere with the working of the pump. 
Water filters are sometimes added, and are very effective, 
but also expensive and apt to get out of order. 

The third type of vacuum cleaner is provided with a 
piston pump. Instead of screwing the air around and 
around, this pump rather draws it up; that is, it has a recip- 
rocating rather than a rotary motion. Piston pump cleaners 
are usually very complicated and expensive. They are highly 
efficient, but apt to get out of order. There is need for a 
single-acting piston pump of simple valve design for one- 
unit sweepers in the smaller schools, but at present such a 
plant is difficult to secure. 

The fourth type of vacuum cleaner is on the principle of 
a steam injector. It is very simple, and there are no moving 
parts.' Where steam is always available at ordinary pres- 
sures for power purposes, the steam injector cleaner pro- 
duces satisfactory results. Where steam has to be especially 
generated for the purpose, however, it becomes too expen- 
sive for ordinary school use. 

Much of the success of a newly installed vacuum cleaning 
plant depends upon the skill with which pipes are inserted 
within the walls of the building to reach the various parts. 
It is not an uncommon thing to find, for example, even in 
new buildings, that the cocks to which hose can be attached 
for vacuum cleaning are only two in number, and placed 
at the extreme ends of the corridors. This means that in 
order to clean rooms along the sides it is usually necessary 



KEEPING THE SCHOOLHOUSE CLEAN 201 

for two men to work at one time, one handling the nozzle 
and the other helping to carry the long length of wire- 
womid hose. Piping should be so designed that every part 
of the building is within fifty feet of a hose outlet, so that 
no section of hose will be too heavy for one man to handle 
alone. The pipes should be arranged in vertical risers with 
few horizontal runs, with long sweeps of drainage fittings 
having shoulders of smooth hose. Even slight roughnesses 
on the inside of the pipes will cause clogging and render the 
cleaning service inefficient. Pipes should never be less than 
one and a half inches in diameter. 

Hose sections should be from fifty to seventy-five feet 
long, about one and one-quarter inches in diameter, and 
should be stiffened with spiral wire, because otherwise they 
are apt to collapse with the force of suction. Air-tight coup- 
lings should be provided. 

Tools for vacuum cleaning. For cleaning bare floors tools 
should be from ten to eighteen inches long, and about three 
inches wide. Felt pads or bristles prevent too great admis- 
sion of air and localize the inrush. Circular brushes with long 
bristles and a leather cuff will frequently be found useful 
for cleaning walls and chalk trays. New tools are constantly 
being invented, and careful experiment should be made be- 
fore final decision. There are, for example, tools on the 
market which are self-propelling, so that the janitor is able 
to stand at the front of the room and direct the brush in 
such a way that it travels to the back of the room and returns 
to where he is standing. Such devices as this make it possible 
for the janitor to clean rooms very much more speedily than 
would otherwise be the case. In choosing tools for vacuum 
cleaning care should be taken to see that the clear opening 
through the tool is not less than a half square inch, as suc- 
tion at the operator's handle through this size opening should 
be not less than two inches of mercury. 



202 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

Suggestions for improving service. Before any striking 
changes can be made in the quahty of janitorial service it is 
necessary that a careful study be made of the school plant, 
in order to see what changes in materials and equipment 
would make the janitor's work easier. For example, in 
buildings already supplied with high-pressure vacuum 
cleaners it is at times possible to provide a vacuum attach- 
ment to the boiler, so that the boiler tubes may be cleared 
out by vacuum power rather than by hand. Where the 
equipment is such that this is feasible, an immense amount 
of work is immediately saved for the janitor. In other cases, 
changing the location of the coal bin, providing carts on 
wheels, cranes for carrying heavy loads of coal, ashes, and 
the like, providing a direct exit from the boiler-room to the 
outside air, so that ashes may be carried out with the least 
difficulty, and other similar small changes may be made at 
a comparatively low cost. 

It is also usually possible, by erecting partitions and some- 
times increasing window space, to board off a small office or 
room which shall be designed for the janitor's own use. The 
number of hours during which the janitor is nominally on 
duty are usually, at least during the winter, very long. He is 
not actually busy with the fires during all that time, yet in 
practically all of our old schools and many of our more 
modern buildings it is the custom to assign to the janitor 
only the cleared space around the boiler, with a hook on 
which to hang his coat. In most systems the school janitor 
has many other duties besides merely tending to the heating 
of the school building. He has to receive supplies, admit 
workmen to the building, keep account of the number of 
hours they spend on the job, and do various other clerical 
tasks. He should be provided with a personal office, prefer- 
ably opening off of the boiler-room, in which should be a 
desk or table at which he can keep his accounts, and some 



KEEPING THE SCHOOLHOUSE CLEAN 203 

place where documents may be filed. This question has 
already been discussed at some length in an earlier chapter, 
but should be emphasized again. It is of little use to try to 
teach janitors the importance of their jobs, unless we first 
provide them with comfortable and dignified quarters. 

Careful study should be made of the different utensils and 
materials which can be used in janitorial work. Too many 
janitors are treated in a way similar to that to which the 
wives of unprogressive farmers are so frequently subjected. 
It is proverbial that much of the work on the farm done 
by women includes large amounts of unnecessary drudgery, 
simply because labor-saving machines which are on the 
market are not purchased. It is too often true that even 
when janitors hear of interesting devices which might cut 
their labor in half, they hesitate to speak about them, be- 
cause the tradition has been established that requests from 
janitors are not attended to. Such an attitude makes for 
inefficient service. 

As is the case with teachers and most other laborers, 
janitors need careful supervision. They cannot be expected 
to run a well-organized system without adequate leadership. 
In large systems the janitors should be united in a depart- 
ment, with a good supervisory officer at its head. In small 
systems supervision of janitorial work must often be com- 
bined with other duties, but supervision of some sort there 
must be if efficiency is to be gained. 

Daily cleaning schedule. In most school systems there is 
some form of daily schedule for the cleaning of school build- 
ings. Directions are given for the frequency with which 
floors shall be washed, oiled, or swept, windows washed, 
door-knobs, stair rails, and woodwork cleaned, walls brushed 
down, toilets cleaned, and so forth. These schedules vary 
greatly in requirement and in the amount of specific in- 
struction provided. It is undoubtedly desirable that such 



204 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

a schedule be adopted for each school system, but it should 
not be imposed from the top, except for certain minimum 
requirements. The janitor may properly be instructed to 
sweep the classrooms each day, but whether he shall do that 
in the morning, at noon, or at night is probably best left to 
his own decision. Wherever possible the schedule of clean- 
ing work should be planned and adopted by the janitors 
themselves working in concert. It will sometimes be neces- 
sary to lay down certain rules which must be followed, but 
the more the janitors participate in making these rules the 
greater will be their interest in following them. 

Conferences and study courses for janitor. When the 
efficient superintendent goes to a new town where the qual- 
ity of teaching is low and teachers are uninterested in their 
work, one of the first things he does is to plan for a series of 
teachers' conferences and study clubs. He tries to get the 
teachers working on different school problems, and reporting 
to each other on the results. He tries to have them feel that 
they are making a real contribution to educational knowl- 
edge, and that any suggestions they make will receive care- 
ful consideration. In like manner, if the quality of janitorial 
service is to be improved, one of the best ways of seciu*ing 
that result is to awaken the professional interest of the 
janitors through some similar organization. 

Before very long there will probably be summer-school 
courses and evening classes for school janitors in which 
they can learn about different types of heating apparatus, 
school hygiene, and the like, and can qualify for the higher- 
grade janitorial licenses. Iowa State College is already car- 
rying on extension courses of this kind, with marked suc- 
cess. Within the system, lecture courses and discussion 
classes may profitably be held by the janitors, and in small 
communities the janitors from several near-by towns may 
be invited to gather in one spot fgr such discussion. The 



KEEPING THE SCHOOLHOUSE CLEAN 205 

subjects for consideration at such meetings might be, for 
example: "Dust and its Dangers"; "How Diseases are 
Transmitted"; "Protecting School Buildings from Fire"; 
"Different Types of Heating Apparatus for School Build- 
ings"; "Different Methods of Cleaning"; "Types of Vac- 
uum Cleaners"; " New Vacuum-Cleaning Tools"; " Recent 
Experiments in Humidity and Ventilation." 

The janitor as a teacher. As the professional interest of 
the janitors increases it will usually be found that many of 
them at least are able to give very interesting information 
concerning their own work. Many janitors aheady have a 
strong influence over the boys on the playground, but their 
connection with the children should be something more 
than that of monitors. The heating and ventilating plant 
of a large modern school is a very interesting thing, and 
presents opportunities for making children familiar with a 
phase of industrial life which many of them will not other- 
wise see. Some time during his course every school child 
should visit the heating plant of his own building. These 
visits should be imder the direction of the janitor, who 
should carefully explain the workings of the plant, answer 
the children's questions, and regard himself as their teacher 
during that period. In similar ways the janitor can be called 
upon to cooperate with the medical inspector, teacher, and 
nurse in bringing home to the children the simpler phases 
of applied hygiene. 

In the upper grades of some of our elementary schools 
pupils are regularly appointed as health officers. This work 
is given credit, just as is the case with regular school work. 
It includes the hourly reading of thermometers, weekly 
rounds for temperature records, adjustment of heat sources, 
opening of windows, etc. In the high schools and the upper 
grades of the grammar school, cultures may be taken from 
sweepings, floor surfaces, and so forth, and examined under 



206 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

the microscope. Smaller children may be taught to wipe 
surfaces with white cloths in order to detect dust. Children 
in all the grades may be assigned to keep the yard in order, 
report on the cleanliness of toilets and basement playrooms, 
and the like. In the public high schools the teachers of 
science may contribute very largely to the increased interest 
of teachers, pupils, and janitors in questions of school hy- 
giene by carrying on experiments with germ cultures, venti- 
lation, moisture apparatus, and the like. Whatever work is 
done, it will usually be found of value to enlist the services 
of the janitor. His respect for his own position will be 
greatly increased, and his cooperation will usually have a 
wholesome effect on teachers as well as on children. 

QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 

1. Make a study of janitors' work in your community, to determine how 
jobs compare in diflBculty, where and how, many assistants are needed, 
what changes should be made in organization, salaries, buildings, and 
equipment, in order to insure greater efficiency in janitorial service. 

2. Which is better, for the school directly to employ all janitors and 
assistants, or to pay head janitors lump sums and let them hire and 
supervise their helpers? 

3. What sorts of records should the janitor keep? 

4. What is the story of "Typhoid Mary"? What should be done about 
such cases? 

5. Of how much value are sulphur candles and similar methods for dis- 
infection? How should a classroom be rendered safe after a contagious 
disease case has been found there? 

6. If there is too much work for one janitor to do, and he has no helpers, 
which tasks may he best neglect, and to which must he give most 
attention? 

7. Report on findings of different experiments in dust analysis. What do 
they imply? 

8. Where teachers are firmly opposed to all suggestions for oiling floors, 
what shall be done about it? 

9. How may old wooden floors be renovated? 

10. Make careful periodic tests to determine how frequently windows 
should be washed in your community. Measm-e differences in lighting 
resulting from dirty windows. 

11. Outline a course of study for janitors in service. What should a jan- 



KEEPING THE SCHOOLHOUSE CLEAN 207 

itor know? How should he be taught? Study courses abeady being 
given, and suggest desirable changes. 
12. Make a collection of daily cleaning schedules, and compare require- 
ments. Criticize. 



SELECTED REFERENCES 

American School Board Journal. (Milwaukee, Wisconsin.) 
See files for articles on janitor service, vacuum cleaners, etc. 

Baskerville, C, and Winslow, C. E. A. "Air Measurement and Experi- 
ments in New York City Schools"; in Report of Educational Investiga- 
tion Committee on School Inquiry (New York City, 1911-13), vol. m, 
pp. 601-728. 

Very interesting and helpful account of dust measurements. 

Chap in, C. V. Sources and Modes of Infection. John Wiley and Sons, New 
York. (1912.) 

Exceedingly interesting discussion of contagious disease, from the point of view of 
the public health ofBcer. 

Dresslar, F. B. School Hygiene. The Macmillan Company, New York. 
(1913.) 

See sections on cleaning of schoolhouses. 

Frost, W. D., and Armstrong, V. A. "Bacteriological Tests of Methods of 
Cleaning"; in Proceedings National Education Association (1911), p. 
985. 

Bussell Sage Foundation, Department of Child Hygiene. What American 
Cities are Doing for the Health of School Children. (New York, 1911.) 
Report of inquiry concerning sanitation in schools. 



CHAPTER XI 

MEDICAL INSPECTION 

Medical inspection and compulsory education. The med- 
ical inspection movement has come as a direct corollary of 
the principle of compulsory education. The successful con- 
tinuance of any democracy must in the long run depend 
upon the education of its people. In order to insure an intel- 
ligent and thoughtful citizen-population the State demands 
that several years of the childhood of every child born 
within its borders shall be devoted to gaining a common 
education, and in order that this may be more successfully 
done, it takes the matter completely out of the hands of 
parents. Insteady of having each one individually charged 
with the education of his child, the State establishes a public 
system of schools and makes attendance at these schools 
compulsory. 

But having assumed this great responsibility for the edu- 
cation of its children, the State is also forced to go one step 
farther. It must provide that no physical harm shall result 
to the children under its care through the enforcement of 
the compulsory education law. It is on this basis that the 
State is justified in passing regulations for fire protection, 
that children may not be subjected to the danger of being 
burned alive during school hours. In the same way it es- 
tablishes minimum standards for sanitation, the location 
of school buildings free from dust, noise, odors, and the like. 
Moreover, not only must it see to it that children are not 
subjected to physical dangers during their school attend- 
ance, but as a mere matter of efficiency, if nothing else, it is 
to the advantage of the State to insure that children shall 



MEDICAL INSPECTION 209 

be in the best possible physical shape during the years of 
school attendance in order that they may take full advan- 
tage of the educational opportimities offered to them. 

The importance of this type of health work has been 
recognized in the United States since the early days of 
public education. But the matter has reached an acute 
stage only with the growth of our larger cities, wherein we 
now find sometimes as many as three, four, or five thousand 
children gathered during five hours a day under one school 
roof. Where under the law children are grouped in such 
vast hordes as this, the danger of contagious disease be- 
comes very great. Only constant watchfulness on the part of 
school authorities can avoid constant and serious waves of 
epidemics throughout the school population. 

Origin of medical inspection. As a matter of fact, it was 
the effort to control school epidemics which first led to the 
organized medical inspection movement as part of the edu- 
cational procedure in our larger cities. Arrangements were 
made whereby groups of doctors periodically inspected 
public school children, in order to make sure that incipient 
cases of contagious disease should be detected before the 
critical stage arrived, and measures taken to prevent their 
being passed on to other children. It is from this first stage 
of the work, inspection for contagious disease, that the pop- 
ular name medical inspection comes. 

It was but a short time after the school doctor became a 
recognized factor in education that new and vitally impor- 
tant discoveries were made. As the doctor looked at tongues 
and measured temperatures, he also could hardly fail to 
notice that many of the children had crooked backs, that 
throats were choked by enlarged tonsils, that breathing was 
interfered with by adenoids. The work which began solely 
as inspection for contagious disease quickly widened to in- 
clude inspection for physical defects; and the work of mere 



210 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

inspection was followed by organized efforts to see to it 
that these defects were remedied. That is, not only did we 
seek to keep one child from being a menace to the health 
of others, but we sought to render every child free from 
physical defects in so far as possible in order that he might 
be able to carry on his work without the heavy handicap of 
ill-health. It was found that many of the children who were 
supposedly dull or feeble-minded were actually partially 
blind, or partially deaf, or suffering most of the time from 
headaches or backaches. Children are curiously non-intro- 
spective persons. They often fail to realize it when anything 
serious is the matter with them, and sometimes they regard 
a headache if it continues all the time as a normal part of 
living. It required the keen eye of the medical inspector 
and the school mu-se to discover that many of these children 
were actually in pain for many of their waking hours. 

The effort to remove these defects resulted in carefully 
organized plans of campaign whereby teachers and parents 
could be taught the dangers of physical defects and various 
methods of helping or preventing them, and also in the 
establishment of school clinics in which the defects might 
be remedied by the school authorities. Eye clinics, dental 
clinics, food clinics, clinics for orthopedic work, and even 
surgical clinics have all been established in our various 
public school systems. The medical inspection movement, 
which started in so narrow a field, as the direct result of the 
compulsory education law, is gradually widening to include 
the whole subject of the health of the school child. 

Present scope of medical inspection. Medical inspection 
of to-day includes four fields of endeavor: prevention of 
epidemics, discovery and cure of physical defects, provision 
of healthful sm-roundings, and formation of correct habits 
of thought and action in regard to health. It is in these last 
two fields that new and most interesting developments are 



MEDICAL INSPECTION 211 

gradually taking place. The following quotation, taken from 
the volume on Health Work in the Public Schools^ one of the 
Cleveland Education Survey monographs, relates to the 
fourth type of activity: — 

As a result of the work of doctors and nurses, Cleveland's chil- 
dren — and her teachers as well — should not only believe in 
plenty of sleep, but should go to bed early; not only disapprove 
of too much tea and coffee, but have strength to refuse when it is 
offered. Through classes for the ansemic and pre-tubercular the 
public schools help each year between two and three hundred 
children. This is worth doing, but they will render a far greater 
service to Cleveland, if, in addition, they succeed in giving to 
eighty thousand children, so firmly that it will never be broken, the 
habit of sleeping winter and summer with wide-open windows. 

The dentist, the oculist, the physician, should come to be re- 
garded, not as dispensers of cures, nor sympathetic listeners to 
hypochondriacs, but as leaders to whom intelligent people go in 
order to forestall trouble, — specialists in health rather than 
disease. Leading its future citizens to form right habits of thinking 
and acting in regard to health is one of the greatest educational 
services which the public school can render. 

Arguments against medical inspection. As is the case 
with most educational innovations, the introduction of 
medical inspection into the public schools met with op- 
position. It was claimed that any system that provided 
inspection by physicians at public expense was not demo- 
cratic. In the first place, it compelled all people to pay for 
the care which individual parents should give their children. 
In the second place, it submitted all children to inspection 
whether their parents wished them to be inspected or 
not. Each of these items was considered an infringement of 
personal liberties. The answer to these arguments is that 
medical inspection is distinctly a democratic movement. 
It is the natural outcome of compulsory education legisla- 
tion. As was stated in earlier paragraphs, it is the duty of 
the State not only to see that children are provided with 



212 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

opportunities for an education, but also that they are in the 
best physical condition possible in order that they may take 
full advantage of such opportunities. Public taxation to 
support public medical inspection is justifiable on exactly 
the same grounds that public taxation is justifiable in order 
to support public education. 

Again the argument is given that such a movement tres- 
passes upon private domain. Medical inspection is pecu- 
liarly a personal matter. It is something to which individ- 
ual parents should attend. Compulsory inspection intrudes 
upon the privacy of the individual. The person who raises 
this objection has either an entirely erroneous conception 
of the work of the medical inspector, or is suffering from 
a peculiar ingrowing sense of modesty. Field doctors and 
nurses are mature and well-bred persons; and where women 
doctors are assigned to work with high-school girls there is 
little danger of sensibilities being offended. The practice 
which is sometimes followed of assigning medical inspection 
work to young students in medical colleges is open, per- 
haps, to unfavorable criticism, but troubles arising from this 
source are very rare. Perhaps it is a good plan, whenever 
it is necessary, to have the child remove part or all of the 
clothing, to have one of the parents present. Most physi- 
cal examinations can be carried on merely by inspecting 
the child as he stands, without asking him to remove any 
clothing. Under such conditions, there can be little ground 
for resentment or feeling that personal rights have been 
infringed, when the school doctor calls to the attention of 
parents defects in their own child. 

Perhaps the most common objection to medical inspection 
in the public schools is that it tends to do away with private 
initiative. This argument is always raised whenever any 
public agency assumes the responsibility which has formerly 
been carried by individuals and private citizens. In the 



MEDICAL INSPECTION 213 

case of medical inspection as it is now carried on in most of 
our cities there is little ground for such an objection, because 
the doctors and nurses do no more than call to the attention 
of the parents defects which need remedying. They rarely 
appeal to legal authorities, or in any other way endeavor to 
make correction of these defects obligatory upon the parents. 
They rather use all their influence in order to persuade 
or educate parents to the importance of remedying defects 
in their children while there is yet opportunity. Medical 
inspection is essentially an educational procedure. Doc- 
tor and nurse usually endeavor to place upon the parents* 
shoulders full responsibility for taking care of the health 
of their children. They stimulate private initiative rather 
than retard it. 

In most communities there also will be some opposition 
to the medical inspection movement on religious grounds. 
There are many people who honestly believe that disease is 
spiritual rather than physical, and they object to any 
medical work because they feel that it encourages wrong 
methods of thinking. In answer to these people it can only 
be said that the weight of experience and all medical science 
is heavily against them. Until such objectors can prove a 
better case than they have so far been able to do, they have 
no valid ground for objecting to an educational procedure 
which assumes that disease and ill-health are real and should 
be combated. Except in the case of contagious disease, 
which in most cities is already covered by law, parents are 
not usually forced to follow the suggestions of the school 
nurse or doctor. There are many people who feel that the 
child should be saved from its parents in such a case, but 
as yet there is little legislation to that effect. Some school 
doctors have stated that it is better to let one child suffer 
through the neglect of its parents than it would be to appeal 
to force, and thereby run the risk of losing the friendly atti- 



214 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

tude and sympathy of the other parents of the community. 
For non-contagious diseases force is probably justifiable 
only when arguments and persuasion fail. 

Administration of a department of school hygiene. The 
various phases of health activity have grown up separately, 
and at different times. It is only very recently that we have 
begun to realize that the problems of medical supervision, 
physical education, playground work, school feeding, health 
classes for children, teachers, janitors, and parents, and the 
physical and mental examination of children admitted to 
the special classes are all properly related activities of the 
one general department of child hygiene, and should there- 
fore be under the immediate direction of one responsible 
head. The director of hygiene should have the same rank as 
associate superintendent. He should be a doctor of medicine, 
and in addition should have had special training and experi- 
ence with educational problems. The school physicians and 
nurses, supervisors of physical training, playground direc- 
tors, supervisors of school lunches, and the school psycholo- 
gist and his assistants should all be under the general direc- 
tion of the chief of the department of hygiene. 

It will be noted that all of these activities are being as- 
signed to the regular school department. When medical 
inspection was first inaugurated in many cities, it was under 
the direction of the local board of health. As the work grew, 
it became evident that the field properly included something 
more than mere inspection for contagious diseases. The 
work of doctors and nurses resembles the work of teachers 
rather than that of policemen, and it became speedily evi- 
dent that medical inspection was primarily an educational 
matter, and could properly be handled only by the educa- 
tional authorities under the supervision of the school super- 
intendent. There are still some communities in the country 
where the local board of health has charge of the medical 



MEDICAL INSPECTION 215 

inspection of the school children, but in general the tendency- 
is strongly in the other direction. The local board of health 
may properly undertake inspection for contagious diseases, 
but in the other lines of work which occupy by far the greater 
part of the time of school doctors and nurses the board of 
health cannot be expected to render efficient service. Medi- 
cal inspection of schools is an educational matter. 

Physicians, Directly subordinate to the director of school 
hygiene there should be in large cities a chief medical in- 
spector. In small cities the regular staff of school physicians 
may be immediately under the director. School physicians 
should be mature men or women, thoroughly trained in 
medical schools, and possessing in addition considerable 
knowledge of public school matters. In the course of time 
provision will undoubtedly be made in the leading medical 
colleges for training in public school work. At present it is 
necessary to secure doctors from various sources who have 
had experience of this kind after leaving school. Great care 
should be taken in the selection of these physicians, and two 
common dangers should be avoided. In the first place, they 
should not be new, young students, fresh from medical 
school. People of this type are not apt to be received with 
favor by parents of school children. The medical inspector 
holds a difficult position, and should have considerable poise 
and experience. On the other hand, he should not be an 
elderly man who has gradually become unfit for practical ser- 
vice elsewhere, and so is shunted off on the public schools. 

The chief medical inspector should watch his assistants 
rather carefully, in order to note how well they get along 
with teachers and children. A doctor may be well equipped 
in professional knowledge and still fail as a school doctor 
because he is unable to handle people. One of the biggest 
contributions which medical inspection in schools can make 
is to train children in the habit of consulting physicians 



216 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

whenever anything is wrong. The school physician must 
inspire confidence on the part of the children. 

Nurses. In addition to the corps of physicians there 
should be a relatively large number of highly trained, skill- 
ful nurses. These nurses should, in general, be registered 
nurses, and should be paid on the regular wage basis of 
other registered nurses in the community. The proportion 
of nurses to doctors will vary in different communities. In 
general it may safely be said that the nurse is the more 
important person. She is able to give greater service for the 
same amount of time and money. If choice must, therefore, 
be made, nurses should be secured rather than extra doctors. 
The properly trained school nurse under supervision is 
entirely capable of making preliminary diagnosis of most 
forms of contagious disease, and of making the routine 
physical examination of throat, lungs, heart, etc. She is as 
capable as the physician in giving treatment for small cuts, 
bruises, etc., examining vaccination marks, and the like. 
Probably the most desirable plan is to have a corps of nurses 
sufficiently large to take over almost entirely the routine 
examination of children for physical defects and contagious 
diseases. They should also be charged with home visiting 
and most of the educational work of the school which has 
to do with toothbrush drills, and the like. 

There should be at least one general school physician 
charged with the direct oversight of the work done by the 
nurses. In addition there should be special physicians for 
such matters as cannot properly be handled by the regis- 
tered nurse. For example, there should be in every large 
system one or more oculists who give their entire time to 
examining the eyes of school children. In small cities ar- 
rangements should be made so that a school oculist is avail- 
able on part time. There should also be a physician who 
makes a specialty of nose, throat, and ear cases, and others 



MEDICAL INSPECTION «17 

who are especially skilled in diagnosis of diseases, particu- 
larly those having to do with the heart and lungs. In every 
city system there should be at least one full-time dentist. 
Dentistry, in fact, is one of the most important forms of 
medical work for public school children, and one most 
frequently neglected. 

The chief of the hygiene department should give all his 
time to the work. In large systems, where there is a chief 
medical inspector, he also should be on full time. The 
amount of time given by the special physicians just noted 
will depend on the size of the system. In large cities it is 
probably desirable to have an especially skilled physician 
in these branches giving full time to school work. The 
nurses should always be on full time. They should be hired 
for twelve months in the year, but be given one month's 
vacation during the summer. Under the plan just outlined 
there should be a sufficient number of nurses so that no one 
will have more than two thousand children to take care of. 
It would be distinctly better were the number decreased 
to one thousand. 

In the case of both physicians and nurses it is essential 
that the rate of remimeration be such that good service 
can be secured. It is usually a mistake to accept volunteer 
service, or that given at less than the regular rate. Such 
arrangements may be good for short periods, while the sys- 
tem is at first being tried out, but in the long run it will be 
found that the work suffers when run on a charity basis. 
If physicians are secured on full time they should be paid 
salaries large enough to warrant them in devoting their best 
thought and energy to school service. Under the plan here 
outlined only a few physicians will be necessary, but they 
should be of thoroughly high grade. 

In the smaller systems, where fewer people can be em- 
ployed, there should be one physician in general charge 



218 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

of the work. Some arrangement should be made whereby 
the services of other speciaHsts could be secured for special 
cases when needed. But where funds are scarce the chief 
reliance should be placed upon a fairly large and thoroughly 
efficient corps of nurses. The State also should be active in 
the matter, and a State department of child welfare should 
be organized, with State supervisors supervising and en- 
couraging the different phases of child health and child 
welfare work throughout the State. 

Inspection. Lispection may be made of whole classes at 
a time, or of individuals. It is probably wise to have 
general class inspections frequently throughout each term, 
and immediately after each vacation, to detect incipient 
disease. During these inspections the physician or nurse 
visits the classroom and walks rapidly up and down the 
aisles looking for signs of colds, fever, or other preliminary 
symptoms of contagious disease. If such routine inspection 
is made after every vacation, the danger of spreading epi- 
demics is greatly lessened. 

In addition to the classroom inspection, there should be a 
more careful examination of every child in the system at least 
once a year, in order to detect physical defects, such as deaf- 
ness, poor eyesight, incipient tuberculosis, heart trouble, hy- 
pertrophied tonsils or adenoids, spinal curvature, and the like. 

In addition to the classroom and individual examination, 
teachers should be taught to recognize the preliminary 
symptoms of many of the commoner diseases. They should 
be instructed how to apply the simpler tests of hearing 
and eyesight. Such instruction is of value partly in order 
to enable the teacher to assist the school nurse and physic 
cian in locating difficult cases, and largely in order to give 
her an understanding of the importance of medical inspec- 
tion and the part that physical handicaps play in the 
problem of backward children, 



MEDICAL INSPECTION 219 

Records. A cumulative record system should be installed 
by the medical inspection department in every school. 
When the child enters school he should be given a card. 
After every yearly individual examination, and such other 
examinations as are given him during the year, a record 
of the result should be entered upon this cumulative card. 
The card should follow the child wherever he goes, from 
grade to grade, from school to school, and from city to city. 
It should be kept on the teacher's desk, and should be sent 
by her to the medical inspector whenever the child is sent 
for an examination. In this way the teacher is given a com- 
plete record of the child's physical history and the informa- 
tion therein contained frequently makes her better able to 
deal with the particular problem the child presents. These 
medical inspection records should contain spaces not only 
for defects found, but for defects remedied, and the cards 
should be so arranged that failure to foUow up or remedy 
defects will be clearly noted. 

Clinics. Every school building should have a small room 
set apart for the use of doctors and nurses. This room should 
be equipped as noted in chapter III. Regular hours should 
be posted at each school, showing the time when the nurse 
will be there to give simple treatment for minor ailments, 
such as boils, ringworm, and the like. In certain of our 
more successful city systems these hours have been open to 
the parents of the children, and in many of the poorer dis- 
tricts fathers and mothers come in and bring their smaller 
children for advice, and even in some cases for simple treat- 
ment. In this way the work of the medical inspector reaches 
out to the entire family, and the cordial cooperation of the 
neighborhood is gained. Such a plan has real educative 
value. 

In addition to these simple school dispensaries there 
should be one or more school clinics depending on the size of 



220 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

the system and the public clinics at hand. Most systems, 
for example, will find it necessary to have one or more well- 
equipped dental clinics, where children's teeth may be put 
in order. In larger systems the eye clinic is becoming a very 
real necessity, and ear, nose, throat, surgical, and orthopedic 
clinics are sometimes found. In addition, in most large or 
fairly large cities, there will be found public clinics or dis- 
pensaries whose services may be utilized for school purposes. 
Local hospitals are usually glad to cooperate. 

Follow-up work. It is of little value merely to discover 
defects. It is of immense value to see that such defects as 
are discovered are remedied. Perhaps the most important 
part of the work to be done by school physicians and nurses 
is in the follow-up campaign. Thereby an endeavor is made 
to persuade parents of the importance of attending to their 
children's physical handicaps. There are three general 
phases of follow-up work. In the first place, every time some 
important physical defect is discovered, a notice is sent to 
the parents of the children. This notice explains the exist- 
ence of the defect, gives a brief statement as to its nature 
and its importance, and urges the parent to consult his 
own physician as to the wisest treatment. When carefully 
worded these notices are imdoubtedly of considerable value. 
Care should be taken, on the one hand, not to make them 
too technical, so that parents will not understand them, and 
not to make them brusque or discourteous on the other. 

In the second place, follow-up work may be successfully 
carried on by conferences at the school building or at the 
physician's office. Instead of sending the usual notice to 
the home, a note is sent telling the parent that a defect has 
been discovered and asking him to come to the school and 
talk it over with the school nurse or physician. Regular 
office hours are held each week at the schoolhouse for this 
purpose, and parents are encouraged to come in and talk 



MEDICAL INSPECTION 221 

over the problems of their children, even when notices have 
not been sent. The plan of holding parent conferences is 
usually more effective than that of merely sending home 
notices. The notice is apt to be disregarded, but a request 
to call at the school is more important, and after the call is 
once made the skillful physician or nurse is usually able to 
impress the parent with the importance of putting his child 
in good physical condition. 

The third, and perhaps the most effective, form of follow- 
up work is that whereby the nurse goes to the home of the 
child, and personally visits the parents. In this case she is 
able to see something of the child's home surroundings, and 
frequently finds information which is of real value in judg- 
ing the case. She also forms a connecting link between the 
home and the school. If need be she makes many visits 
covering long periods of time, in order to watch over the 
child's progress and to keep in touch with what the parents 
are doing. The nurse's program should be so arranged that 
she will have several hours each day for this most important 
part of her work. 

Staff attitude. If the medical work of the school is to be 
efficiently carried on, it is important that there be good 
staff cooperation. This may be secured, in the first place, 
by frequent conferences of physicians and nurses meeting 
together and talking over their problems. It is important 
in this connection that the traditional attitude of the nurse 
toward the doctors give way somewhat, so that she may feel 
free to talk with them and offer suggestions from her own 
experience. The stricter etiquette of the hospitals should be 
relaxed, and the nurse made to feel that she has something 
real to contribute through her experience to the other mem- 
bers of the staff. Staff conferences of nurses and physicians 
should be held at the beginning of the year, and at frequent 
intervals thereafter. CHnics should be held whereat chil- 



222 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

dren are examined, and the methods of examination, the 
terms used, methods of recording information on cards, etc., 
should be talked over by the staff and a uniform procedure 
agreed upon, so that the records of each physician and each 
nurse shall mean the same to all the others. This is a most 
important consideration if the statistics of the department 
are to be used for further study. 

During the year various members of the staff should be 
encouraged to bring in problems which they meet in the 
field, and ask suggestions from the other members as to the 
best means of handling them. Occasional conferences should 
be held with the principals and teachers of schools. In 
planning these staff programs it will be found that the best 
results are secured if a certain subject or several subjects 
are selected for special consideration during each year. For 
example, one year devote attention to locating the children 
showing defects of vision, and have many of the yearly con- 
ferences centered about that subject. Another year, per- 
haps, spend considerable time in studying the question of 
malnutrition; another, such difficulties as hearing, stutter- 
ing, or the like. This does not mean that the existence of 
other defects should be ignored, but rather ^provides for a 
system of rotating or varied emphasis, so that doctors or 
nurses will not run the danger of getting into a rut and losing 
interest in their tasks. Li any group of workers interest in 
a subject is apt to rise on a wave, and then sink as the nov- 
elty wears off. The wise chief of staff will so plan his work 
that every time the wave of interest begins to descend, 
another subject will carry it upward again, and the mem- 
bers of the staff will be kept alive and keen all the time. 

A successful means of keeping the staff's interest is by 
making a regular self-survey of the work. By this means 
the reports from different districts are handed in to the 
medical supervisor, and comparative charts are arranged 



MEDICAL INSPECTION 223 

showing the results gained in different subjects by districts. 
On these charts the names of the medical inspectors and 
nurses are usually omitted, so that no one looking at them 
can tell who is responsible for a given record. A figure 
or letter is substituted for the name of the person, and all 
other distinguishing marks are removed. For example, the 
number of children showing eye defects and the number 
of defects remedied for each district is compiled and shown. 
A meeting is then called and the results are exhibited. Nat- 
urally the members of the staff are all eager to see which 
district shows the greatest proportion of eye defects found, 
and of those found, the greatest proportion remedied. Each 
knows his own score, but not that of the others, and is able 
to make a comparison of his work with that of the rest of 
the staff, yet without being obliged to state his conclusions 
aloud. Different schemes of this kind will keep the staff 
eager to learn from each other, and on the alert for new 
methods of procedure. 

School physicians and nurses should all be encouraged 
to visit the medical inspection departments in other cities. 
It is now an accepted principle that school teachers should 
go to visit the work of other teachers in their own neighbor- 
hood and elsewhere, and it should be equally accepted that 
the school physicians and nurses can learn much by seeing 
how the same work is done in other places, and comparing 
the results there obtained with those obtained under their 
own system. Members of the medical inspection staff 
should also be given opportunity to meet other members 
of the school system. They should be invited to speak at 
teachers* conferences, and at the larger educational con- 
ferences of county and State. They should be asked to 
present papers at teachers* institutes, and should be encour- 
aged to write papers for publication. In every way the pro- 
fessional importance of the medical inspection division 



224 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

should be magnified and the members of the staff made to 
feel that they are rendering an important educational serv- 
ice to the community. 

Textbooks on school hygiene. The early books on school 
hygiene devoted a large part of their space to questions of 
medical inspection. They usually gave one chapter con- 
cerned with the organization of the medical inspection staff 
and its relation to the board of health. In addition, several 
chapters were usually devoted to the detection of contagious 
diseases, the symptoms of the commoner forms of eye dis- 
eases, skin troubles, and the like, tests for vision, tests for 
hearing, inspection and treatment of cases of spinal curva- 
ture, psychological examinations for backward children, 
and similar problems. The problem of school hygiene, in 
fact, was considered as being very nearly the same as the 
problem of medical inspection, and subjects which properly 
pertained to one also pertained to the other. 

At the present time, however, we have come to regard 
the subject of school hygiene as considerably larger and 
more inclusive than that of medical inspection. Medical 
inspection is simply a branch, although an important branch, 
of the general subject of school hygiene. The textbook on 
school hygiene should outline the general formation and 
work of the department of medical inspection, but if it 
be a textbook of ordinary size it cannot properly deal with 
the more detailed problems of medical inspection, because 
these problems are too important to be considered in the 
superficial manner which would be necessary were they 
to be confined within the limits of a single volume which 
also has to deal just as fully with the other problems of 
school hygiene. Most students of education do not need 
to know the details of examination for infectious or con- 
tagious diseases, the methods of testing sight, and hearing, 
and the hke, or the best methods of treating the defects 



MEDICAX INSPECTION 225 

found. Such a student should know in general the make-up 
of medical inspection corps, the reason why it should exist, 
the arguments which will be brought against it, and the serv- 
ice which it may properly hope to render. He should leave 
to the members of the staff the more technical information 
which it is their business to learn. 

QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 

1. Where did school medical inspection start? Under what circum- 
stances? Trace the spread and development of the system. 

2. Compare the arguments presented by those favoring medical inspec- 
tion by boards of health, and those favoring medical inspection by 
school authorities. What is your own conclusion? 

3. A school principal recently said: "After all, medical inspection is 
intended merely for poor children. Rich children don't need it." Do 
you agree? Why? 

4. Suppose you were superintendent of a city of two hundred thousand 
or over, and a tenth of the population was opposed to medical inspec- 
tion on religious grounds. Would you enforce it? What about vac- 
cinations? How far are legal measures for enforcement of health 
regulations justifiable? 

5. If it is proposed to establish a department of hygiene in your school 
system, the supervisors of physical training, supervisor of school 
lunches, psychologist, and other persons who would become subordi- 
nate to the head of the department would probably strongly oppose 
the idea. How far is the plan worth fighting for? 

6. Most physicians are unalterably apposed to the proposition that 
nurses should be allowed to exclude children from school on suspicion 
of contagious disease. What are your views? In most systems the 
doctor only calls at the school once or twice a week. Should the nurse 
be allowed to make diagnoses say on Monday, Wednesday, and 
Friday, but not on Tuesday or Thursday? What should she do? 

7. One physician said, "We don't pay any attention to adenoids because 
most parents won't do anything about them." What attitude should 
the school take in such a case? 

8. Where there is no system of medical inspection what can teach- 
ers do? What suggestions have already been made to rural-school 
teachers? 

9. How can a school surveyor most quickly secure a fair basis for judging 
the effectiveness of the medical inspection system? 



226 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 



SELECTED REFERENCES 

Most of the school survey reports have sections on this subject. See espe- 
cially the reports on Denver, Portland, Springfield, Illinois, Buffalo, 
Butte, San Antonio, Salt Lake, Leavenworth, Cleveland, and Brook- 
line. The following books will all be found valuable for further study: — ■ 

Ayres, Leonard P., and May. Health Work in the Public Schools. Mono- 
graph of Cleveland Education Survey Series, Russell Sage Founda- 
tion, New York. (1916.) 

Cornell, W. S. Health and Medical Inspection of School Children. F. A. 
Davis Co., Philadelphia. (1912.) 

Crowley, R. H. Hygiene of School Life. Methuen & Co., London. (1910.) 

Dresslar, F. B. School Hygiene. The Macmillan Company. New York. 
(1913.) 

Gulick, L. H., and Ayres, Leonard P. Medical Inspection of Schools, 
Russell Sage Foundation. (Second edition, 1913.) 

Hoag, E. B., and Terman, L. M. Health Work in the Schools. Houghton 
Mifflin Company, Boston. (1914.) 

Rapeer, L. W. School Health Administration. Teachers College, Columbia 
University, New York. (1913.) 

Terman, L. M. Hygiene of the School Child. Houghton Mifflin Company, 
Boston. (1914.) - 



CHAPTER Xn 

' PHYSICAL TRAINING AND RECREATION 

Recreation surveys. On two afternoons in November, 
1914, during the hour and a half which elapsed between the 
close of school and supper-time, four investigators walked 
through the streets of the little town of Ipswich, Massa- 
chusetts, looking carefully about the streets, the vacant lots, 
yards, parks, and playgrounds, and making note of every 
child they saw. They noted what each child was doing and 
where he was doing it. They also made a quick judgment as 
to the probable ages of the children. During the three hours 
of their studies these investigators saw about seven hundred 
children, — four hundred and fifty of them boys, and two 
hundred and fifty of them girls. Exactly two thirds of all 
the children were either standing still and doing nothing, 
or else were walking slowly up the street apparently idling 
their time away. Moreover, although Ipswich is a town of 
homes with ample yards and a wealth of open fields and 
play space, it was found that most of the Ipswich children 
played or walked around in the pubhc street. This was 
especially true of the girls. More than three fourths of them 
were in the streets instead of in yards or playgrounds. 

Nor is this condition found only in the small town. A few 
months earlier than the Ipswich investigation a similar cen- 
sus was taken in Cleveland, Ohio, under the direction of 
the chief medical inspector and assistant superintendent in 
charge of physical education. Here are the conclusions 
drawn from the Cleveland census : — 

1. That just at the age when play and activity are the 
fundamental requirements for proper growth and devel- 



228 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

opment, forty-one per cent of the children were doing 
nothing. 

2. Fifty-one per cent of all the children seen were in the 
street in the midst of all the traflfic, dirt, and heat, and in an 
environment productive of just the wrong kind of play, 

3. Only six per cent of the children seen were on vacant 
lots, despite the fact that in most of the districts vacant lots 
are available as play spaces. 

4. Even though thirty-six playgrounds were open and 
sixteen of them were supplied with apparatus, only eleven 
per cent of the children seen within four blocks of a play- 
ground were playing on it. 

5. Of the 7358 children reported to have been seen play- 
ing, 3171 were reported to have been playing by doing some 
of the following things: fighting, teasing, pitching pennies, 
shooting craps, stealing apples, "roughing a peddler," chas- 
ing chickens, tying cans to dogs, etc. ; but most of them were 
reported to have been "just fooling," not playing anything 
in particular. 

The report concludes, "We need more and better play- 
grounds, and a better- trained leadership." 

Commercial amusements. In both these investigations 
reports were made solely on those children who were actually 
outdoors. There were undoubtedly large numbers of chil- 
dren who had sought amusement elsewhere. It is an il- 
luminating experience for one who is studying the use of 
leisure time by school children to go into the neighboring 
" movies " about half -past four o'clock in the afternoon. It is 
not uncommon to find a large moving-picture hall entirely 
filled with young children, with hardly more than four or 
five adults in the entire audience. In some regions prac- 
tically every child in school is a regular attendant at the 
movies. Some of these children go two and three times a 
week, and for many the movie has become the chief means 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND RECREATION 229 

of recreation. The movie is most frequently patronized 
because the admission charge is so low; but it has been 
found where studies have been made that young children in 
the elementary schools are often frequent visitors at vaude- 
ville shows and the cheaper theaters. About a fifth of all 
school children, in the larger cities, at least, go to the regular 
theater at least once a month, and sometimes more fre- 
quently. 

When we speak of commercial amusements we usually 
think of those amusements which are on a money-making 
basis and intended to attract adult persons. As a matter of 
fact, many of the most successful commercial enterprises 
cater largely to children in the grammar and high-school 
grades. Many forms of recreation which are attractive and 
desirable in themselves when placed on a commercial basis 
become surrounded by undesirable influences. Take, for 
example, the case of the game of billiards. In the survey 
made by the Department of Recreation of the RusseU Sage 
Foundation, entitled Recreation in Springfield, IllincdSy we 
find the following quotation: 

Billiards is an extraordinarily attractive game. Scientific, unus- 
ually free from the factor of chance, it offers the player unlimited 
opportunities for the improvement of his ability to judge spaces, 
coordinate the muscles, and exercise persistence of endeavor. The 
green felt, the shining balls, and the straight hand-liking cue all 
please the senses. Being played indoors, by day or by artificial 
light, the recreation afforded by billiards and pool is at all times 
independent of the weather, and it is an especial boon to the worker 
during the long winter evenings when outside sports are not so 
regularly available. Furthermore, these are eminently sociable 
games drawing together persons of similar ages and tastes, and 
allowing all the delights of jest and witticism to animate the 
spirits while the play is going on. 

But in Springfield, just as is the case in most other cities, the 
opportunity to play billiards is almost everywhere linked with 
powerful temptations to use alcoholic beverages. Of the sixty 



gSO HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

holders of billiard and pool licenses, thirty-six also hold licenses 
enabling them to have saloons on the same premises. The young 
men who frequent these pool-rooms cannot escape the odors from 
the bar-room, the contagion of custom, or the compulsion of a 
hospitality that is none the less powerful because it takes the form 
of alcoholic refreshment. 

The temptation to intemperance is not the only evil in the sur- 
roundings of the average commercially managed billiard-room. 
Often gambling operations hover in the proximity, and sometimes 
the brothel is not far away. Moral hazards such as these menace, 
each year in Springfield, thousands of young men who are pursuing 
the pleasures of a game which is in itself as beneficial as it is enjoy- 
able. 

There are also public dance-halls in Springfield where pass-out 
checks are given to the patrons which enable them to visit neigh- 
boring saloons during the progress of the evening's program as 
often as they desire. The young women in attendance may not 
only dance with partners who have been imbibing, but, since in- 
troductions are not customarily required, they may at any time 
receive invitations from persons regarding whose irresponsible 
character and vicious habits they may be absolutely ignorant. To 
thousands of Springfield's young people dancing is a perfectly nor- 
mal mode of social life, and the only feasible opportunity they 
have for enjoying it is now surrounded by moral pitfalls of the most 
dangerous and insidious character. 

Space for play. If children are to have healthful and nor- 
mal play activities two things are necessary: first, opportun- 
ity; and second, leadership. In the smaller towns every 
home is usually fitted with a yard, and there are many va- 
cant lots and open fields in which children may play. In 
the larger cities there are only occasional parks and play- 
grounds and children, at least in the poorer districts, are 
usually restricted to playing in the streets or on the roofs of 
buildings. In New York City, for example, groups of boys 
are observed much of the time on the tops of tenement roofs 
flying kites or scaring pigeons. In some of the most thickly 
populated cities it has even become necessary for the 
authorities to close certain cross-streets after school hours 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND RECREATION 231 

and give them to the exclusive possession of children, so 
that the little folks may have some place where they can 
play without the danger of being run over by passing 
vehicles. 

As has already been pointed out, however, street play is 
not confined to the children of the larger cities. 

Springfield does not, with its ample school grounds, park spaces, 
and home grounds, face the necessity of such intensive use of 
streets. But the fact remains that the streets are much used for 
play, and, with school grounds closed after school hours and school 
buildings practically unused for recreational and social purposes, 
the youth of the city are forced to resort to the streets and the com- 
mercial amusement places for their afternoon and evening recrea- 
tions. A visitor to the city cannot but be impressed by the unusu- 
ally large numbers of young people from twelve to twenty-two 
years of age drifting up and down the "downtown" streets in the 
evening. 

The people who were making the recreation survey in 
Springfield expressed great surprise when they discovered 
that the spacious school yards for which Springfield is noted 
were used only during the recess period, and that after school 
hours and on Saturdays and during the long summer vaca- 
tion the grounds for the most p^rt lay idle, while children 
played in the streets or trespassed upon private property. 
It is unfortunate that surprise at such condition cannot be 
more generally felt by persons acquainted with other public 
school systems. It is probably true that most schools close 
their yards to children after the school day is over. In 
Cleveland, for example, the rules of the Board of Education 
read: "Pupils will not be allowed to . . . remain on or revisit 
the premises after dismissal of the school, except by special 
permission of principal of the building." 

Not only are children frequently refused admittance to 
the playground, but the yards themselves are surrounded 
by high iron fences with locked gates. It is noticeable, too, 



232 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

that not infrequently the fences and gates around play- 
grounds are most impregnable in regions where buildings 
are most crowded and children are most seriously in need 
of playground space. The principal of a grammar school in 
one of the poorer sections of a wealthy Massachusetts town, 
speaking of the playgrounds, said: "We used to have a good 
supply of playground apparatus, but the children swarmed 
to the yards in such numbers and became so unruly that we 
simply had to take down all the swings and bars. There are 
a lot of tough gangs in this region, and we can't allow them 
to damage our school premises." In a somewhat better por- 
tion of the same town the school principal says: "Of course 
the children don't use the playground. We don't expect 
them to. Home is the proper place for school children, and 
they ought to be made to stay there." 

It is perhaps only human for principals to wish to avoid 
the responsibility entailed in governing groups of children 
at the school playground, and this is particularly natural in 
regions where children are rough and unacquainted with 
the ethics of fair play. It is, however, true that one of the 
most important elements in the education of the child is 
to be found through wisely directed recreation and group 
activity. Most thinking people agree that lessons in moral 
education cannot successfully be taught solely by the lecture 
method. Sunday-School lessons or daily morning talks by 
teachers must remain relatively ineffective, unless the child 
is given an opportunity to try out those lessons for himself 
and put the meaning into practice in his own daily living. 
Supervised recreation is a laboratory for ethical experiments. 
It is one of the most useful means which the school can 
employ in teaching children the codes of citizenship. 

Part of hygiene teaching. There are many cities which 
have already recognized the educational value of supervised 
play. The field of physical training is gradually widening 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND RECREATION 233 

until it includes not only the old-time calisthenics, but also 
various types of athletic sports, games, and other forms of 
recreational activity. The division of physical training and 
recreation should be one branch of the department of hy- 
giene, and the supervisor as the head should be directly 
subordinate to the director of the department of hygiene. 
The membership of the staff must depend largely upon the 
size of the city, but should include general supervisors 
having under their charge the work of teachers in classrooms 
and on the playgrounds, a corp of specially trained play- 
ground teachers, and a corp of special instructors who can 
give work with gymnasium apparatus, lead the sports of 
basket-baU, baseball, and the like, and act as coaches and 
instructors for the various athletic contests. 

Cooperation of medical inspectors. It is essential that 
the division of physical training and recreation shall work 
in the closest possible cooperation with the division of medi- 
cal inspection. Medical inspectors in making their routine 
physical examination should keep in mind the requirements 
of the physical-training department, and in the cases of 
elementary schools as well as high schools should indicate 
for each child whether he should take the full athletic work, 
or whether certain types of work should be entirely omitted 
or given in small quantities. When gymnasium classes were 
first established in elementary and high schools, it was a 
common experience to have many of the children bring notes 
from their family physicians, stating that they were unable 
to do the regular physical-training work. It has been suc- 
cessfully demonstrated that if careful medical inspection is 
carried on at the school, and the program of the child modi- 
fied in accordance with the suggestions of the doctor, objec- 
tions from home rapidly diminish in number. Children who 
would otherwise have been deprived of all physical training 
now receive a small portion which they are well able to 



234 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

carry, and in many cases improve so rapidly mider the 
modified program that within a year or two they are able to 
carry much heavier work with benefit to themselves. 

Posture work. The experiment has also been tried of 
having a specialist in the correction of postural defects 
engaged as a regular member of the physical-training staff. 
Children even in the lowest primary grades are frequently 
found suffering from round shoulders, crooked backs, fallen 
arches, and other defects which can either be completely rem- 
edied or very greatly helped if corrective exercises are given 
in time. It is, of course, essential that any iastruction along 
this line be under the direction of a specialist in corrective or- 
thopedic work. Where the divisions of medical inspection 
and physical training work together in this activity, they 
may render a service of supreme importance. When the 
examinations are being made by the medical inspectors, 
such postural defects are noted, and word sent to the pos- 
ture specialist of the physical-training department. Cer- 
tain of the cases found will be too difficult for the school 
authorities to handle successfully with their small staff, and 
should be referred to orthopedic physicians or hospitals. 
Other cases, however, can be greatly helped by simple 
school procedure. 

One plan sometimes followed is to form small classes in 
each school, consisting of from three to ten children, and to 
set aside periods of ten or fifteen minutes, probably not 
longer, each day, in which will be given setting-up exercises 
and simple forms of apparatus work. The apparatus needed 
for these cases is so simple that the janitor can easily put it 
up in any classroom or hall, under the direction of the physi- 
cal-training supervisor. These setting-up drills are not so 
much for the purpose of developing muscle as for making the 
children familiar with what is desired in the way of posture. 
A child cannot "stand up straight" or "throw his shoulders 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND RECREATION 235 

back " unless he knows, through his own repeated experience, 
what the muscle feeling is when the correct attitude is 
assumed. Repeated instruction or scolding will be of very 
little help. What must be done is to take the child and 
actually place him in the desired position, showing him in 
the mirror the difference it makes in his appearance, and 
having him practice throwing himself into a good posture 
under the supervisor's direction. When a child with stoop- 
ing shoulders once learns what is actually required of him, 
through having himself experienced the way it feels to have 
his muscles properly in place, half the battle of correcting 
the defects is won. 

The work of the physical training and medical inspection 
divisions must not stop there, however. Besides giving the 
setting-up drills each day to squads of children with defects, 
teachers must be given the habit of watching the posture of 
all the children in their classes, and of encouraging children 
so that all of them will feel the desirability of sitting and 
standing in the correct position. Then, too, care must be 
taken to get in touch with parents of children and to see to 
it that they understand not only the nature of the trouble, 
but also what the school suggests to the child and what it is 
trying to do through the setting-up drills. When a mother 
hears the instructions given to her small boy, she almost 
invariably becomes intensely interested, and helps him at 
home by reminding him of the exercises he should take, and 
encouraging him when he does well. In many cases the 
school, by a few interviews with parents, is able to change 
their attitude of ignorant indifference or carping criticism. 
Many parents, through very anxiety for their children's 
welfare, become so obnoxious with their constant scolding 
that the children themselves become stubborn, and feel that 
there is no use even in trying since all their trying seems to 
meet with no reward. If the school succeeds in showing such 



236 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

parents how to help their children, instead of discouraging 
them by non-understanding criticism, it will contribute an 
enormous factor toward the child's success. 

Physiological age. The work of the division of physical 
training and recreation should be confined neither to the 
high school nor to the elementary school. In many systems 
one or the other is almost or entirely neglected. In the well- 
organized system the division will include both branches, and 
will even arrange for contests between the older children 
of the elementary schools and the younger children of the 
high schools. The division between the two groups is en- 
tirely an artificial matter, and should not be allowed to 
assume the importance that it generally does assume in 
the minds of children and community. There is a popular 
misconception to the effect that all the children in each 
grade are of practically the same age and at the same stage 
of physical and mental development. As a matter of fact, 
we know that there are children in the eighth grade of the 
grammar school who are less proficient in many of the school 
studies than are some children in the first and second grades 
of the same school, and in like manner there are some chil- 
dren in the first and second grades who are more able in 
certain school studies than children in the higher grades. 
Similarly, it is true that one will find, stretching all the way 
from the fifth grade through the junior high school, boys 
and girls who have practically the same physical develop- 
ment. The adolescent period is not peculiar to the high 
school, nor is the pubescent period peculiar to the element- 
ary school. Each group is represented by children who are 
students in the other type of school. In organizing physical 
training and recreational activities, then, we must take this 
matter of a distribution of physiological age into account, 
and see to it that opportunities are provided which fit not 
merely the children of a particular grade, but rather the 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND RECREATION 237 

children of a particular stage of development no matter in 
what grade or in what school they may be found. 

Classroom exercises. Until very recently it has been the 
custom to confine physical training to certain calisthenic 
exercises, given several times a day by the classroom teacher, 
between recitation periods. Recently, however, a strong 
tendency has developed either to eliminate calisthenics 
entirely, or to place them in a minor role, and to give the 
time formerly occupied by such work to simple forms of 
classroom games. This point of view is illustrated from the 
following quotation, taken from the recreation survey of 
Ipswich, Massachusetts : — 

Calisthenics are necessary in the schoolroom to shake off drowsi- 
ness, renew energy, and provide an outlet for the natural restless- 
ness of boys and girls. But calisthenics are at best perfunctory 
activities, without the free, adventurous, imaginative qualities of 
games and free play. Few take calisthenic exercises in after life. 
They do not build lifelong habits. They lack the cooperative team 
work, opportunity for developing real leadership, and stimulation 
found in free games and active play. No incentive to succeed, no 
training of good sportsmanship exis{;s. Calisthenics are better than 
nothing, they are a step in advance, but they are not sufficient in 
themselves to insure physical efficiency and to teach the social 
lessons demanded of the school to-day. 

In Cleveland, calisthenics are omitted entirely from the 
primary grades. Periods of "rest and recreation" occur 
several times a day, at the discretion of the grade teacher; 
and during these periods many formal games are carried on. 
Where such indoor games are popular and well taught, 
there is sometimes noted a tendency to do away altogether 
with outdoor recess. The Cleveland Report holds that this 
is a distinct mistake : — 

Valuable and desirable as the indoor play periods may be, they 
are not a complete substitute for outdoor play during the school 
session. When the recreational activities of children are transferred 
from outdoors to indoors their value is lessened through: — 



238 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

1. Loss of fresh air. 

2. Lack of sunshine. 

3. Restriction of space and full freedom of activity. 

4. Diminished pleasure. 

5. Narrowed range of activities. 

6. Extreme brevity of the period. 

7. Dust raised by the running and jumping. 

The spontaneous play of children is now generally recognized as 
the expression of such fundamental human instincts as hunting, 
fighting, creating, nurturing, imitating, etc. All out-of-doors is 
none too large to provide the needed stimuli to these instincts, 
and every unnecessary narrowing down of environment denaturizes 
by so much the essentials in child play. 

Recess. The report gives strong warning, however, 
against the practice of sending children outdoors at recess 
and expecting them to play in a wholesome manner: — 

Under conditions attending recesses that are unorganized and 
that lack method, children do nevertheless play games, but there 
is a vast deal of informal, sometimes anti-social, and relatively 
valueless romping and scuffling, and the recess becomes a period, 
not of genuine social increase, but rather of social leakage. 

Moreover, it is essential that the games conducted at 
recess and on the playground should be distinctly athletic 
in character. In discussing the list of games issued by the 
department of physical training in Cleveland for use in 
grades from three to eight, the Cleveland Report says : — 

While the playground games come nearer supplying the elements 
needed, even these fall short of what is desirable. They consist 
very largely of games of tag, and the simpler games played with an 
inflated ball. Not one of these, by any stretch of the imagination, 
could be conceived as holding such widespread interest as do our 
great national games, which boys of grammar-school age univer- 
sally admire and attempt. The playground games hold about the 
same relation to the national games that tether-ball does to tennis. 

Athletic games in a very few years greatly influenced one hundred 
thousand Filipinos in departing from the ghastly custom of head- 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND RECREATION 239 

hunting. But song games, room games, and playground games of 
the kind mentioned could never haye converted Filipinos from 
head-hunting, nor can they convert or restrain from hoodlumism, 
from "bumming," from "rushing the drunks," from street fighting, 
and from other undesirable gang activities the boys who begin to 
participate in these things long before the elementary-school age 
is passed and the high-school age is reached. 

Teachers and games. It is probable that many teachers 
will strongly rebel if it is suddenly suggested to them that 
they should act as leaders for active games during the recess 
period. They feel, naturally enough, that having worked 
hard all the morning they should be given a few minutes of 
quiet breathing spell while the children are out of the school, 
before they are obliged again to take up their classroom 
work. Moreover, not a few teachers have a feeling that it 
would be difficult for them to maintain discipline in the 
classroom were they to lay aside their official dignity long 
enough to lead in active games on the playground. It is 
probably true that there are certain teachers who would 
lose their hold upon the children were they to engage in 
any form of social activity with them. But such a situation 
is a clear indication that the teacher is using very question- 
8.ble methods in the regular classroom work in order to 
secure good discipline. Really good teachers do not have 
to be particularly sensitive about maintaining an appear- 
ance of age and dignity in front of their children. Usually 
they will find that when teacher and pupils play together 
for a few minutes eadi day, the work afterwards in the class- 
room is on a much more friendly and human basis than it 
was before. In the long run, democracy is a more effective 
special method than autocracy. 

So far as concerns the other objection, that the teacher is 
too tired to take part in playground leadership, the only 
answer is, "Try it and see." We send children outdoors at 



240 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

recess because we feel that they are thereby made fresher 
and more able to continue the classroom work for the rest 
of the day. If this holds true for children, it would seem 
logical to think that it holds true for at least the younger 
teachers also. For the first week, perhaps even for the first 
month, many teachers will strongly dislike the innovation, 
partly because they are unaccustomed to this form of 
activity and feel both nervous and self-conscious. Let the 
playground games become an old story, however, and this 
feeling of strangeness gradually wears away. Most teachers, 
unless they are too old and stiff, will find that they enjoy 
the outdoor recess period as well as do the children, and that 
the classroom work afterwards becomes easier and more 
endurable for both. 

Activities outside school hours. Organized play in the 
classroom and on the playground at recess may very suc- 
cessfully be led by teachers trained under the supervision 
of the physical-training and recreation division. We must 
not, however, exact from regular classroom teachers further 
service in play activities after school hours, unless we pay 
them for the additional time and make such service volun- 
tary. A teacher or playground director should be in charge 
of the school playground every afternoon after school hours, 
and on Saturday afternoons throughout the entire school 
year. During the summer more workers should be added 
and the playground should be kept open daily, morning and 
afternoon. During the school year the expense for play- 
ground supervision is between one dollar and a half and two 
dollars per school for each afternoon, and three dollars for 
Saturdays. The cost during the summer would necessarily 
be somewhat larger. If school playgrounds are properly 
surfaced and equipped with simple apparatus they usually 
form a better playground than those which are established 
separately, because they are always accessible to large 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND RECREATION Ul 

numbers of children and are already supplied with shelter, 
drinking-water, and toilet facilities. 

Athletics. It is commonly believed that all boys like to 
run and jump and join in competitive trials of skill, and that 
they do not need the expensive services of a hired director 
in order to teach them how to do these things. In fact, the 
person who suggests supervision for physical training and 
recreation in the public schools is certain to be faced with 
the sincere and scornful opposition of people who think 
that they know what they are talking about when they say 
healthy children do not need to be taught how to play. 
There is very Uttle use arguing against a proposition like 
that. The only effective answer is found by studying the 
children themselves. We have already noted the survey 
findings as to the way in which school children employ their 
leisure time. Equally significant are the various studies 
which have been made comparing children under the old 
regime with those under the new. For example, in the 
Ipswich study previously referred to, boys in the fifth, sixth, 
seventh, and eighth grades of the elementary schools in 
Ipswich, Massachusetts; and in the districts of Manhattan, 
New York City, were given the same tests of running, jump- 
ing, and chinning the bar. The Report says: — 

These records are not the high marks obtained during the course 
of several years, but the actual physical rating of the boys in the 
regular work during the past year. The majority of these boys live 
in the most congested section of Greater New York, where the 
health conditions and opportunities for exercise do not compare 
favorably with those enjoyed by the boys of Ipswich. The impor- 
tant thing is that these city boys have had definite physical training 
and properly guided play as a regular part of their school work. 

The city boys can outrun and out jump the Ipswich boys. . . . 
The records of the Manhattan boys is not due to exceptional skill 
or greater inherent ability. It is due to the careful physical train- 
ing in the school. The training that is given to the Manhattan 
boys ought not to be denied to the Ipswich boys. These figures do 



242 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

not indicate inherent weakness nor ill-health. They prove beyond 
question that insufficient attention has been paid to the physical 
training of the boys in Ipswich. 

The athletic-badge test. The records of the Ipswich and 
Manhattan boys were made with what is known as the 
athletic-badge test. This is a test adopted by the Playground 
and Recreation Association of America as fm-nishing stand- 
ards to which every boy should attain. There is a similar 
test for girls. For the boys these tests are running, jumping, 
and chinning. Careful study has been made of the records 
of thousands of boys, and standards ascertained which 
should be reached by the average normal boy. These tests 
are as follows : — 

Class A — For younger boys, usually those found in fifth and 
sixth grades. Sixty-yard dash, 8| seconds. Standing broad jump, 

5 feet, 9 inches. Chinning, 4 times. 

Class B — For older boys, usually those found in seventh and 
eighth grades. Sixty-yard dash, 8 seconds. Standing broad jump, 

6 feet, 6 inches. Chinning, 6 times. 

Class C — Standard for boys of the general high-school age. 
220-yard dash, 28 seconds. Running high jump, 4 feet, 4 inches 
Chinning, 9 times. 

In describing the plan the Ipswich Report says: — 

In these tests the standard does not represent perfection, but 
merely a passing mark. Not to attain a passing mark is failure. 
The standard in these events corresponds to the sixty or seventy 
per cent which is the passing mark in academic study. The tests 
determine not only normal strength, but also ability to use and 
control strength. This is the goal of all physical training. If a boy 
can neither use nor control his body to a reasonable degree a vital 
element of his equipment for future usefulness is lacking. These 
tests are being used in the public schools in hundreds of cities and 
towns throughout the United States. They have been accepted as 
fair tests wherever used. The inability of any large proportion of 
the boys of any community to meet these requirements shows : first 
lack of physical training either at home or at school, and second 
the real need for just such training. 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND RECREATION 243 

The tests for girls are as follows: — 

First test — All-up Indian club race, 30 seconds. Basket-ball 
throwing, 2 goals, 6 trials. Balancing, 24 feet, 2 trials. 

Second test — All-up Indian club race, 28 seconds. Basket-ball 
throwing, 3 goals, 6 trials. Balancing beanbag on head, 24 feet, 
2 trials. When Indian clubs are not available the potato race, as 
specified in the rules, may be substituted. 

Further details, with rules for administering the two tests 
for boys and girls, may be secured by applying to the Play- 
ground and Recreation Association of America, 1 Madison 
Avenue, New York City. 

Group Athletics. It is desirable to have not only each 
child striving to improve his own physical record, but also 
to cultivate a test of group ability. Where athletic records 
are made for individual prowess alone there sometimes comes 
the temptation to beat out the other fellow, and the desire 
for personal success assumes too great a place in the child's 
mind. Moreover, when schools are anxious to win honors, 
there comes a very human tendency to encourage the better 
athletes and to discourage the less successful. One of the 
most effective means of doing away with this form of spe- 
cialization and selection is to have competition by groups 
of children, rather than by children acting as individuals. 
These groups may be of equal numbers of boys or girls of 
the same age, or they may be entire classes of one school 
competing against each other, or different groups of equal 
numbers from different schools. The entire membership of 
the group is obliged to take part. If less than eighty per cent 
of the group are present, no record is given for that group. 
One desirable result of group competition is that, through 
the force of public opinion, every child is made to do his 
very best. Laziness which jeopardizes the group standing 
is not tolerated. 

In each event the score is found by dividing the sum of 
the individual records by the number of competitors. This 



244 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

makes it possible where necessary to have small groups 
working against larger groups, since the actual number 
of children in each group makes very little difference. Jn 
working for trophies to be awarded to different classes within 
the same school, or to entire schools within the district, 
competitions should be held in several different tests. The 
most usual are the three already cited in jumping, chinning, 
and running. Other events successfully used are kicking 
the football, throwing the baseball, the shotput, and the 
relay potato race. For groups of girls the most common 
tests are basket-ball throw, all-up relays, shuttle relays, 
folk-dancing, and hoop race. 

Public school athletic league. As part of this new system 
of using athletics as a means for education athletic leagues 
have been organized in public schools in many of the larger 
cities throughout the country. Baltimore, Buffalo, Jersey 
City, Newark, New Orleans, New York, Salem, Massachu- 
setts, San Diego, San Francisco, Seattle, Springfield, Massa- 
chusetts, Tacoma, Troy, and Washington, D.C., all have 
public school athletic leagues for boys and issue printed 
reports on their subjects. Athletic leagues for girls are some- 
what less common, but are nevertheless being rapidly added 
in these and other cities. One of the most successful athletic 
leagues for girls is that of New York City. The follow- 
ing quotations are taken from the handbook of the New 
York League : — 

The problems involved in girls' athletics were much more diffi- 
cult than those in boys' athletics, the athletics of boys and men 
being established through a long history of evolution, while girls' 
athletics was a new subject, which of necessity had to be largely 
experimental. 

The fundamental policies adopted by the Girls' Branch 

were and are: — 

Athletics for all the girls. 

Athletics within the school, and no inter-school competition. 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND RECREATION 245 

Athletic events in which teams (not individual girls) compete. 
Athletics chosen and practiced with regard to their suitability 
for girls, and not merely an imitation of boys' athletics. 

The Girls' Branch of the Public Schools Athletic League 
encourages after-school athletics for girls by: — 

1. Offering pins and trophies for certam events. 

2. Conducting free instruction classes in those events for grade 
teachers who volunteer their services for the after-school 
athletics. 

3. Assisting to organize athletic clubs. 

4. Supplying instructors, coaches, and assistants where the 
board of education is unable to do so. 

' 5. Trying to secure enlarged facilities for outdoor exercise for girls. 

The Girls' Branch is doing everything in its power to 
further the use of folk -dancing as a form of play for the bene- 
fit and pleasure of the children themselves, and is opposed 
to its use for exhibition purposes. Park fetes are arranged as 
great play days, with the children in great numbers from 
many schools, dotted in groups over great meadows of fif- 
teen acres or more which are roped off and kept clear for 
the children only. In this way the individual children are 
lost to view in the great throng, and the exhibition element 
is eliminated, while at the same time the sight of acres of 
happy girls, all dancing at the same time, is a more stirring 
and beautiful one than can be easily described. 

If we are ever really to have athletics for girls generally, 
we must settle at least the following points : — 

1. What exercises are likely to be injurious internally to matured 
girls? 

2. What exercises are mechanically suited to the build of the 
average girl.^^ 

3. What are suited to her muscular strength and endurance.'* 

4. What will contribute to her health and vitality, and help to 
fit her for a normal woman's life.'* 

5. What form of physical activity comes nearest to containing 
for her the primitive appeal that athletics in the accepted 
sense hold for boys.'^ 



246 



HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 



Wide inquiry among those who have had extensive experi- 
ence with physical training for girls shows that athletic 
activities for girls fall into the following groups: — 

For mature girls For immature girls 

1. Condemned 1. Condemned 

Broad jump Pole-vaulting 

High jump (in competi- Running more than 100 

tion) yards 

Pole-vaulting Weight-throwing 



2. Doubtful 

High jump 

Running more than 100 
yards (in competition) 
Weight-throwing 

3. Safe 

Archery 

Ball-throwing 

Basket-ball (women's rules) 

Climbing 

Coasting 

Dancing 

Field hockey 

Golf 

Horseback riding (cross- 
and side-saddle) 

Indoor baseball 

Low hurdles (not in com- 
petition) 

Paddling 

Rowing 

Running (not in competi- 
tion) 

Skating 

Skiing 

Snowshoeing 

Swimming 

Tennis 
Walking 



2. Doubtful 

Basket-ball 
Field hockey 



Safe 

Archery 

Ball-throwing 

Broad and high jump (not 
in competition) 

Climbing 

Dancing 

Horseback riding (cross- 
saddle) 

Low hurdles 

Paddling 

Rowing 

Running (not in intense 
competition) 

Skating 

Swimming 

Tennis 

Walking 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND RECREATION 247 

For mature girls For immature girls 

4. Especially beneficial and suit- 4. Especially beneficial and suit- 
able able 
Dancing Climbing 
Paddling Dancing 
Rowing Jumping (in moderation) 
Running Running (in moderation) 
Swimming Skating 
Walking Swimming 

Walking 

5. Best loved, most commonly 
practiced and with great- 
est primitive appeal 
Dancing (greatest una- 
nimity of opinion in this 
answer) 

Educational sports. Physical-culture departments should 
be careful not to confine their activities and interests merely 
to the field of individual or. group athletics. Many of the 
most valuable forms of group education which can be given 
under the supervision of the physical-training department 
are not athletic tests, but different forms of games and 
sports. For example, we find leaders in the physical-training 
and recreation movement urging the necessity for establish- 
ing regularly organized baseball teams for both boys and 
girls; and wrestling- and boxing-matches for boys, tennis, 
ice-skating, riding, swimming, camping, hunting, fishing, 
and school hikes for both girls and boys are all included 
as educational activities which are essential to the proper 
physical and mental development of school children. "A 
teacher," suggests Dr. G. E. Johnson, "might be as instru- 
mental in getting a girl interested in tennis as in getting her 
interested in Scott." Moreover, these activities must not 
be delayed until high-school or college age. Most of them 
should be begun by the ages of ten or eleven; and the 



248 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

grammar-school years should be full of vigorous sound 
outdoor life as a regularly required part of the school 
work. 

Wider use of the school plant. As has aheady been 
pointed out there are two essentials for educative recreation 
among children. One is adequate leadership, the other is 
opportunity. Not only must the division of physical train- 
ing and recreation provide a suflficient number of well- 
trained leaders, so that all children may take part in organ- 
ized games and athletics, but the school department must 
also see to it that facilities are provided whereby these 
things may be carried on. This means that school yards 
must be provided with ample space for games, must be 
given good service, and equipped with suitable apparatus. 
It means that at least one large playfield must be supplied 
so that different schools can meet together in contests. It 
means that the cooperation of the park department must 
be secured, so that the open fields in various parks may be 
utilized by school children. But in addition to all these 
matters, if the system outlined is to be made effective, full 
utilization must be secured of the school plant itself. Space 
must be given for basket-ball games, wrestling, boxing, 
dancing, and swimming, as well as for the quieter occupa- 
tions of playing pool and billiards, singing, playing musical 
instruments, conducting amateur theatricals, and making 
things at the work-bench 

To many people the social-center movement implies only 
the use of the building during the evening by parents of 
school children; and people quite forget that one of its most 
important functions is providing for children of school age, 
and for those children who are somewhat older than the 
regular school age, and may indeed have left school in 
order to go to work, some place where they can carry on 
recreational activities under leadership. There is little value 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND RECREATION 249 

in passing rules against allowing children to attend public 
dance-halls, billiard-rooms with bars attached, cheap the- 
aters, movies, or the like. If teachers and parents are sincere 
in wishing to combat the evil influences of commercialized 
amusements they must adopt a constructive attitude. In- 
stead of forbidding children to attend public dances, they 
must organize dances for young people which will be held 
under desirable conditions. Moreover, these dances must 
be made attractive to the young people. If the floor is 
smooth and well waxed and the music good, boys and girls 
will readily come. If teachers and parents are wise enough 
to provide amusements of higher quality than those which 
can be purchased elsewhere, they will find practically no 
difficulty in securing patrons among the school children. 

In the same way well-equipped billiard- and pool -tables, 
well lighted and in convenient location, should be opposed 
to the billiard-room found in the back room of the modern 
saloon. If amateur theatricals are to rival attendance at 
the movies and the cheaper theaters, they must be equally 
exciting and full of "pep." The same rule applies through- 
out. Offer the children what they want and they will come. 
It is of little use to offer to the tough gang of the neigh- 
borhood the opportimity to sit quietly in the schoolhouse 
and play checkers and dominoes for an evening, but by 
establishing a series of boxing-contests under the direction 
of a skilled trainer, we make the same school building a 
clubhouse for the whole gang. 

It is not within the province of this book to go in any 
great detail into the question of social centers, since most of 
their activities lie in the field of school sociology rather than 
hygiene. Full information concerning their organization 
and activity may be secured either from the Extension 
Division of the University of Wisconsin, or from the Depart- 
ment of Recreation of the Russell Sage Foundation. In gen- 



g50 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

eral it may be said that they add Httle to the cost of educa- 
tion, and add greatly to its effectiveness. 

Survey suggestions. In the discussion of this chapter 
quotations have extensively been made from three reports 
of recreation surveys. Each of these survey reports ends 
with a brief list of recommendations for the town surveyed. 
The following quotations taken from the work of Mr. Han- 
mer and Mr. Perry in Springfield, Mr. Knight in Ipswich, 
and Dr. Johnson in Cleveland, represent the practical sug- 
gestions made by recreation experts to fit the needs of three 
"real-life situations." They are included in the present dis- 
cussion because in a brief way they outline what the work 
of a school division of physical training and recreation is 
gradually becoming. 

Springfield. Recommendations for treating the Spring- 
field situation are given in great detail, with concrete sug- 
gestions concerning the wording of city ordinances and the 
like. A summary of these recommendations is as follows: — 

1. Equip and use school yards and some park space for play. 

2. Provide for a centrally located athletic field for the schools. 

3. Place the administration of all playground and school athletic 
activities in charge of the director of physical training and 
play. 

4. Teach games for playground and home-yard use at play 
periods on school yards and other public playgrounds. 

5. Remodel and equip school buildings for social-center uses. 

6. Provide for administration of social centers through additions 
to the staff of the superintendent of schools. 

7. Encourage the cooperation of neighborhood organizations in 
the direction and support of the schoolhouse centers. 

8. Organize school athletic leagues for both boys and girls, thus 
insuring proper supervision of such activities and adaptation 
of exercises to the needs of the different age and sex groups. 

9. Have a standing city committee on holiday celebrations. 

10. Organize a municipal athletic league for the young men of 
the city. 

11. Provide for the extension of Boy Scouts and Camp-Fire Girb. 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND RECREATION 251 

12. See that there is proper inspection and control of the com- 
mercial amusements of the city. 

13. Have a representative city committee on recreation to be re- 
sponsible for a progressive and balanced development of all 
parts of the city- wide recreation program. 

14. Do not attempt to do it all the first year. Make a beginning 
and work steadily toward the ultimate plan. 

Ipswich. As is the case with the Springfield Report, a 
large portion of the Ipswich Report relates to concrete and 
detailed suggestions for handling the recreation situation. 
The summary of these recommendations is as follows: — 

1. Physical training for all boys and girls as a regular part of the 
school curriculum. 

2. Teaching of games for home and playground use. The exten- 
sive use of group games in physical training, and the use of the 
athletic-badge test and group athletics. 

3. The employment of a physical director and play supervisor, 
and a woman member of the faculty, with special training, to 
care for the physical work of the girls. 

4. Equipment of each school and school yard with sufficient 
apparatus to enable teachers to make the best possible use of 
recess time. Grading of school property wherever necessary 
to render it most useful. 

5. The use of the Manning High School as a social center, and 
that such use be definitely encouraged and stimulated. 

6. That in the next school building erected, a gymnasium with 
lockers and shower baths be provided. That it be equipped 
with movable furniture so that it may be efficiently used. 

7. That the atliletic field be equipped with a running-track, 
tennis-courts, and the like, and that a small field house be 
erected. 

8. That the ground in the rear of the Burley School be adequately 
developed as a children's playground. 

9. The organization of a Public Athletic League. 

10. A permanent Celebration Committee. 

11. The extension of Boy Scouts, Camp-Fire Girls, and other 
similar organizations. 

12. That the commercial amusements should at all times be safe- 
guarded. 



252 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

13. That the administration of the use of the athletic field and 
steep-bank playground be placed in the hands of the school 
department. 

14. Do not attempt to do all this the first year. Make a definite 
beginning and then work steadily toward the ultimate plan. 

We realize that it takes time, thought, and continued effort to 
develop a system of public recreation in any community. The first 
thing to be done in Ipswich is to engage a physical director who 
as he studies the needs can best advise as to further steps. The 
program as outlined above will no doubt be modified as the work 
progresses. It represents an ideal to work toward rather than a 
hard-and-fast line of procedure. No work of this kind can succeed 
without the cooperation of the community at large. Ipswich will 
never have adequate provision for public recreation until Ipswich 
really wants it. 

^ Cleveland. The last few pages of the Cleveland Educa- 
tion Survey monograph, entitled Education Through Recre- 
ation, read as follows : — 

1. Cleveland is extraordinarily well equipped in plants and in 
teaching force for the conduct and administration of recreation 
in the public schools. Many of these advantages, however, are 
neglected. 

The recesses should not be omitted, and they should be organ- 
ized. This does not imply formality at recess. It does imply study 
and organization, so that the recess may count for the most possi- 
ble, physically and socially. More "steam" is blown off in a skill- 
fully organized, than in an unorganized, recess, and the social 
value is certainly far greater. 

Better still, groups might take their recesses in rotation: out- 
doors in pleasant weather, in the gymnasium or playroom in un- 
pleasant weather. This would increase the value of the recess and 
might be made the means of relieving congestion. To some extent 
this has already been done. 

2. Schoolroom and indoor recreation should, so far as possible, 
become outdoor recreation. The play periods should be longer. 
The plays and games should reflect the deep, instinctive interests 
of children of the ages concerned. They should perpetuate the play 
traditions of the nation. The plays and games employed should 
not be devised at the desk — manufactured out of whole cloth; 
they should be the growth of generations. 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND RECREATION 253 

3. There should be a relatively larger element of free play in the 
kindergartens and lower grades. The waste places, between wings 
of buildings and elsewhere, small and at present for the most part 
useless, should be thoughtfully equipped for the little tots of the 
school. With a slight expenditure these desert places can be made 
to blossom as the rose educationally and socially, to the relief of 
congestion, to the aid of teachers, and to the immeasurable benefit 
of the children. 

4. The apparatus should be taken from storage, and the school 
playgrounds made inviting to pupils out of school hours. This will 
necessitate additional supervision, which should be provided. 

5. The swimming-pools that have been begun should be com- 
pleted, and both swimming-pools and gymnasiums should be jus- 
tified by the use made of them. 

6. Far more attention should be paid in the elementary grades 
to hardy, organized games. There both numbers and needs (even 
the adolescent needs) predominate, as compared to the high school. 
In Cleveland, schools can do larger service with plays and games in 
the grades than in the high schools. It would be better to turn 
the whole corps of physical-training teachers into the elementary 
grades and neglect the high schools than to practice economy so 
unequally at the expense of the grades as at present. The whole 
system of play and recreation for the grades should be revised with 
reference to educational and social aspects. 

7. The general question of the wider use of school plants for 
play and recreation is complicated by local conditions. But in 
general it may be said that the schools contribute relatively little 
to the social activities of the several neighborhoods. This subject 
is considered more exhaustively in the section of the Survey Report 
entitled, "Educational Extension." 

8. Some reorganization of the educational corps should take 
place with a view to efficient administration of play and recreation 
from a broad educational and social standpoint. This would lead 
to a far greater influence of the school upon the out-of-school life 
of the community. Through lack of greater influence of the school 
during out-of-school hours, there is a great social leakage for which 
the city must pay. 

9. The school is the natural and logical agency for the safe- 
guarding of the great fundamental interests of children and youth. 
Each year discloses more and more clearly that the school is the 
one institution we have yet conceived that is best fitted adequately 



254 HEAXTHFUL SCHOOLS 

to conserve these interests and utilize them for educational and 
social progress. Opportunities that came as a matter of course to 
children a generation ago do not come to many children now unless 
they are specifically planned for by some agency other than the 
home. Met wisely by the community, this seeming handicap may, 
in the end, result in a great and new found social strength. 

10. Play is more than recreation. If its educational significance 
is real in the kindergarten period, it is real in every subsequent 
stage of growth and development. Rightly conceived, play is a 
most efficient method of education for life, for work, for social serv- 
ice. The fact that we do not yet know how to make full use of 
play in education need not and should not prevent the utilization 
of play, to the full extent to which we are prepared, for the tremen- 
dous social service it can render. 

11. In the Cleveland school system, as in that of every large 
progressive city, there should be : — 

a. An officer whose entire time should be devoted to giving a 
social interpretation to educational work, and an educational inter- 
pretation to social work. He should know the general fields of 
sociology and education, and should know intimately the fields of 
play and recreation. He should be to the social functions of the 
school what the director is to the business management, and what 
the superintendent of instruction is to the academic work. He 
should organize and utilize the physical properties of the school 
and, so far as practicable, the existing educational corps for the 
directing of the play and recreational interests of the pupils and 
the community towards constructive education and social progress. 
' b. An officer whose function is to organize and direct especially 
the active plays, games, sports, pastimes, and athletics of the sys- 
tem. He should have a general knowledge of the social and educa- 
tional aspects of play and recreation and a technical knowledge of 
physical training. Cleveland has at present a supervisor of physical 
training having but limited authority in the elementary schools, 
and almost none in the high schools. 

c. An officer whose function it is to supervise the play of young 
children to eight or nine years of age. She should have a thorough 
training in the fundamental principles of the kindergarten, plus the 
general social and educational background of a thorough knowl- 
edge of play and recreation. She should be a part of the division 
of physical education and not independent of it as she now is in 
Cleveland. 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND RECREATION ^55 

d. Besides the officers mentioned above, there should be one who 
is trained to organize and direct the almost universal, but greatly 
wasted or misused, dramatic interests; one who can utilize simi- 
larly the musical interests for educational and social progress; one 
the nature and nurturing interests; one the constructive; one the 
aesthetic. 

These great lines of human interest and endeavor are replete 
with recreational as well as educational opportunity; they have 
their place as avocations quite as truly as vocations. The various 
official functions mentioned might, of course, be delegated to ex- 
isting officers, and sometimes several might be combined in one 
person. But educational and recreational problems must be seen 
from each of these angles by some one who feels the burden of re- 
sponsibility. Education needs play, and play needs education. 
The problem of adult recreation is but a phase of the problem of 
the play of children and youth. 

QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 

1. How well worked out is the pedagogy of physical training and recrea- 
tion? Where is more study needed? How far do the results actually 
gained in teaching justify the school superintendent in giving physical- 
training teachers more hours on the weekly program? 

2. How may the value of a physical-training teacher's work be judged? 
What objective measures may be used? 

3. Make a survey of recreational opportunities in your community. How 
widely are they used? Where they are not used, what is the reason? 
What might be a remedy? 

4. Suppose that in a rough neighborhood when children are admitted 
to the playground they break windows, destroy apparatus, and gather 
at the playground at night for anti-social purposes. What should the 
school authorities do? 

5. Do children from comfortable homes in suburban towns need play- 
grounds or "wider use" privileges? 

6. How far may schools depend on volunteer help in conducting recrea- 
tional activities? 

7. In one community posture work for children with pronounced defects 
was prohibited on the ground that it was not fair to speciahze by 
giving to small groups of children training which, because of its cost, 
could not be provided for all. How would you meet this argument? 

8. Collect figures on physiological age, and present them in such a way 
as to show the distribution of each age among various grades in ele- 
mentary and high schools. 

9. What games are now being most used in classrooms? On playgrounds? 



256 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

How far will these successfully compete with the popular activities 
of the street gang? What changes would you suggest? 
( 10. What is the average "professional life" of the physical- training 
teacher? To what other occupations does it lead? How important is 
this question to leaders of the educational recreation movement? 
11. Should teachers be expected to join in organized sports with their 
pupils? 

SELECTED REFERENCES 

Hanmer, Lee F., and Perry, Clarence A. Recreation in Springfield, Illinois. 
Department of Recreation, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 
(1914.) 
An exceedingly interesting survey report. 

Johnson, George E. Education Through Recreation. Cleveland Education 
Survey Monograph. Russell Sage Foundation, New York. (1916.) 
One of the most recent and comprehensive of the recreation surveys. 

Knight, Howard R. Play and Recreation in a Town of 6,000. (A Recreation 
Survey of Ipswich, Massachusetts.) Department of Recreation, 
Russell Sage Foundation, New York. (1915.) 
One of the earliest and best of recreation surveys. 

Perry, Clarence A. Wider Use of the School Plant. New York, Survey 
Associates, Inc. (1910.) 
Standard reference on subject. 

The Playground — a recreation magazine. (1 Madison Avenue, New York 

City.) 

Will furnish helpful suggestions. 

Playground and Recreation Association of America, 1 Madison Avenue, 
New York City, issues material which is especially helpful in studying 
the question of school athletic leagues. 

Department of Recreation, Russell Sage Foundation, 130 East 22d Street, 
New York, issues various publications on recreation, wider use, etc. 

Boy Scouts of America. (200 Fifth Avenue, New York City.) 

Camp-Fire Girls. (461 Fourth Avenue, New York City.) 

Both of these organizations will be able to give considerable help in outlining 
recreational activities for school children. 



CHAPTER XIII 

EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 

Two groups. As we have found in earlier chapters, the 
compulsory education law has had many and varied effects. 
When we insist that all children must attend school, we 
assume responsibility for sick children as well as healthy 
children; for the extraordinarily bright and the extraordi- 
narily stupid. We herd together within the confines of the 
public schools children of all kinds and classes, and must 
therefore hold ourselves responsible for furnishing to them 
the sort of educational opportunity of which they can best 
take advantage. It is in recognition of this duty which falls 
upon the State that we are beginning to organize special 
classes for exceptional children. 

Children who are irregular, who do not fit into the ordi- 
nary scheme of things, may be divided in general into two 
great classes: First, those who will be called upon to live 
the ordinary life of the ordinary citizen after leaving school; 
and second, those who will never be able to mingle with 
society at large, but will always be dependent upon others 
for support or guidance. These two classes are described 
by Dr. David Mitchell, in his monograph on Schools and 
Classes for Exceptional Children, under the headings " So- 
cially Competent" and "Socially Incompetent." Under the 
title "Socially Competent" Dr. Mitchell would include 
such children as the blind, the deaf, the crippled, the anaemic, 
those suffering with speech defects, foreign children, and 
most of the incorrigible cases. All of these he holds, although 
badly handicapped at the start, may nevertheless be pre- 
pared to fit themselves for independent existence in the 



258 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

community. On the other hand, there are certain children, 
such as the epileptic, feeble-minded, and insane, who are 
socially incompetent. When they reach the stage of adult- 
hood, they will still remain a burden upon society. 

Different educational treatment. If the distinction be- 
tween these two classes be valid, it should be recognized in 
the type of education provided for the children while they 
are yet in school. Those who will be forced to mingle with 
the rest of the world on equal terms after reaching adult life 
should be given every opportunity for such association dur- 
ing childhood. Blind children, for example, should not be 
segregated in separate schools and institutions where they 
will meet none but the blind, and where special care will 
be given to them because of their infirmities. Rather they 
should be given every opportunity to associate with seeing 
children in a world of seeing people. Some special care they 
will need. They probably must have separate teachers, but 
just so far as their work can be carried on with seeing chil- 
dren to that extent will their school life resemble the real 
life into which they must shortly go. For all such children, 
then, special classes must be established, but these classes 
should be located in large public schools which normal 
children are also attending. Just as foreign children receive 
some of their best lessons in English by playing with 
English-speaking children, so also the blind, the deaf, and 
the crippled will receive valuable education at the hands of 
their more fortunate fellows. 

The socially incompetent, on the other hand, will never 
associate on equal terms with normal people. The require- 
ments of adult life for them are very different from those of 
normal people. Their school education must necessarily be 
different in type and material. To the lower types of feeble- 
minded children, for example, it is a foolish waste of time 
to give lessons in reading, writing, and arithmetic, to say 



EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 259 

nothing of history and grammar, because they are abso- 
lutely incapable of taking advantage of the instruction. The 
insane, the feeble-minded, and the epileptic should be housed 
in buildings of their own where they will not be forced to 
associate with normal children, and where special education 
can be given them of the type from which they can most 
profit. 

The socially competent. Most of the work for the blind, 
the semi-blind, and the deaf must necessarily be carried on 
in separate classrooms under special teachers and with spe- 
cial apparatus. They will only be able to take part in exer- 
cises with normal children in a few subjects. But they can, 
at least, be taught to play with normal children, and to 
feel at home when associating with them. The physically 
weak or actually crippled can associate with normal children 
to a much larger degree. Usually these children can take 
part in all but physical exercises, and while sometimes school 
hours must be shortened and home preparation curtailed 
entirely, nevertheless the work of the handicapped and the 
normal can be carried on side by side, so that each group 
will benefit from association with the other. Children who 
have defects of speech usually may remain in the regular 
classrooms with normal children, but should leave the class 
at frequent intervals during the week for special instruction 
by the speech teacher. Foreign children must often be kept 
in separate classes the first few weeks until they understand 
the rudiments of English. They can, however, join with the 
regular children in such exercises as singing, gymnastics, 
and the like, and as their ability to handle English increases, 
they should gradually be introduced to working with other 
children of their own age. 

Incorrigible children present a more difficult and per- 
plexing problem. Just as in outside life the modern tendency 
is to give a second chance to new offenders, to place them on 



260 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

parole, etc., so with the incorrigible child it is probably wise 
to try the different forms of probation before actually plac- 
ing the child in a special class. If, however, the child becomes 
so unruly that he interferes with the work of the classroom, 
he should be placed in a special class in the regular school 
building, and kept there until he can be returned to his 
proper room or else until he has proved himself so anti- 
social in nature that he has to be placed in a parental or 
truant school and separated from normal children. 

The socially incompetent. No epileptic child should ever 
be allowed to belong to a class with normal children, nor 
should he be put in the unclassified special group with immi- 
grant children, crippled, blind, and the hke, as is sometimes 
carelessly done. If he must be in a group with other than 
epileptic, he probably belongs with the feeble-minded, but 
wherever possible should have a class by himself. Insane 
children are rarely found in the public schools. Usually 
they become so difficult to manage that they are early taken 
out and cared for at home or in private institutions. It is 
the feeble-minded who form the largest group of socially 
incompetent children among school classes. These feeble- 
minded range from borderland cases to profound idiots. 
It is almost impossible to make an exact estimate of the 
number which will be found in any system, because as a 
matter of fact authorities have not yet agreed as to what 
they shall call feeble-minded. Roughly speaking, about one 
third of all the children in the public school system are back- 
ward in their classes. Of these some are backward because 
of physical defects, some because of late entrance, some be- 
cause of poor teaching, and some because of varying degrees 
and types of mental disability. 

From the point of view of school administration, feeble- 
minded children may be divided roughly into three groups. 
In the first and highest group belong those children who are 



EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 261 

dull and slow. They cannot keep up with the regular school 
work. They can be taught to do simple reading and writing, 
but will never read very much for pleasure. Most of the 
children in this group will be able to carry work up to about 
the fourth or fifth grade in difficulty. These children would 
not ordinarily be called feeble-minded by the layman. It 
is only the psychologist or the experienced teacher who 
realizes that they are sub-normal. Below them comes the 
second group of feeble-minded children, distinctly inferior 
to the first. These children may be taught to read and write, 
but such achievement is merely a trick. They can make 
practically no use of it. They do not know what the words 
they read actually mean, nor the purpose of what they are 
writing. These children can, however, under careful direc- 
tion, be taught a simple trade in which little skill is required. 
They can usually do good manual-training work which does 
not require thinking, and can be kept happy and useful in 
a special class under a teacher trained for such work. The 
third group of feeble-minded children who are found in the 
public schools consists of those who are of such low-grade 
mentality that they cannot with any profit do even the 
simpler forms of school work. Th6y can, with careful direc- 
tion, be trained to take care of themselves, to fasten their 
clothing, to attend to their daily wants, to feed themselves, 
and to amuse themselves with simple toys. 

In any large system the children of these three groups 
should be separated into different classes with different 
teachers. These teachers should have varying degrees of 
training. The teacher in the highest group needs to be skilled 
in the training of feeble-minded children. The teacher in 
the middle group needs considerably less training, and 
should naturally expect to receive a lower salary. For the 
third group a regularly trained teacher is probably not 
necessary, since any one who can keep the children happy 



262 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

and lead them in simple amusements will answer the need 
successfully. It seems evident that the higher salaries and 
the better-trained teachers should be devoted to those 
classes of socially handicapped children which have been 
described in earlier paragraphs. It is for these children who 
are to be regularly independent members of society that the 
greatest care and the best teaching should be provided. 

Assignment to classes. It is important if special classes 
for the socially competent and socially incompetent children 
be established in the public schools, that admission to these 
classes shall depend upon something more than the teach- 
er's whim. The judgment of teachers as to the mentality 
of children has been repeatedly shown to be unreliable. 
Admission to the special classes should be handled by the 
director of school hygiene. In all cases, excepting probably 
the crippled and the anaemic, candidates should first undergo 
a thorough mental examination, given by an experienced 
psychologist who applies certain standardized mental tests, 
and determines the mental intelligence level of the child. 

Such psychological examination should not be confined 
solely to children who are suspected of being feeble-minded. 
It will often be found true that children who are supposed 
to be deaf or blind are also feeble-minded, and therefore 
cannot profit from the instruction given in special classes 
for the blind or deaf. Speech defects are also frequently 
associated with mental deficiency, and the admission of 
feeble-minded children to speech-training classes should be 
carefully avoided. In a similar way candidates for the other 
special classes should undergo physical examinations by the 
doctor especially versed in the particular class of defects 
under consideration. 

Not only should admission and discharge from special 
classes depend on the decision of the child hygiene depart- 
ment, but the work carried on in those classes should also 



EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 268 

be under the direct supervision of that department, so that 
matters of heating, ventilating, and physical condition of 
the children will be carefully kept under observation. 

Open-air schools and fresh-air classes. Paralleling the 
movement in favor of special classes for exceptional chil- 
dren has come the open-air school movement. This was 
primarily established for tubercular or pre- tubercular chil- 
dren, and is gradually spreading to normal children as well. 
The open-air class is, as its name suggests, a class where 
children and teachers study outdoors in the open air rather 
than in a closed schoolroom. Many of these classes have 
been established on the roofs of buildings; others have been 
held outdoors under tents or on ferry-boats. Still others 
have been held in regular schoolrooms with windows com- 
pletely removed from the frame, so that there is plenty of 
access to light and air. 

The three essentials. There are three essentials for a suc- 
cessful open-air school. These are, fresh air, warm clothing, 
and good food. No one of these can be omitted without 
harmful results to the pupils. The clothing should consist 
of warm outer wraps, head coverings, and some method of 
keeping the feet warm. We all kijow that the most effective 
way to keep warm is to prevent draughts from chilling the 
body. This means that there should be no cracks or crevices 
in the clothing through which cold air can enter. Children 
should be provided with warm shoes and stockings. Some- 
times heavy felt boots are found desirable. In addition they 
should be provided with sitting-out bags, which are made 
on the same principle as sleeping-bags, and are fastened to 
the chairs in such a way that the children's bodies, from the 
waist down, are thoroughly protected from draughts. In 
the so-called "cold-air" rooms, which are not officially 
designated as open-air classrooms, it is common to find 
the children proyided with no means of keepmg their feet 



264 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

warm. Extra sweaters are usually the only wraps at hand. 
The danger of chilled feet is serious, and extra precaution 
should be taken against it. During comparatively warm 
weather it is also important to see to it that no child wears 
too heavy clothing. The teacher should be on the alert to 
detect signs of over-heating, such as flushed cheeks, damp 
hair, perspiration, and the like, and in such cases should 
require the children to remove part of their outer clothing. 
Over-heating is a frequent cause of colds. 

It is essential that children in open-air classes should be 
provided with extra amounts of food. Food provides fuel 
for the body, and is rapidly turned into heat. If children 
are not given extra food, they are apt to become unduly 
chilled, and will not benefit by the open-air class work. It is 
also important that this food should be hot. Cold lunches, 
even though appetizing and nourishing, do not seem to be 
effective. Hot nourishing soup or cocoa made with milk 
may often be served to the children in addition to lunches 
they may bring from home. For children who are ill or 
ansemic it is especially important that large amounts of 
nourishing food be provided, under the direction of the school 
dietitian or physician. 

Montclair's experiment. There are many conflicting 
reports as to the value of open-air classes. It has been 
demonstrated apparently that children who are convales- 
cent or almost on the verge of tuberculosis, when placed in 
an open-air class with warm clothing and plentiful good 
food, will frequently gain in weight, become strong and well, 
and actually do as much or more class work than normal 
children of the same ages in corresponding grades. In other 
cases apparently careful experiment has seemed to show 
that open-air classes are no more valuable to children than 
the regular traditional class of the public school. In Mont- 
clair, for example, Superintendent Bliss reports on an experi- 



EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 265 

ment with open-air classes in which extra feeding was sup- 
plied, and where each experimental class was accompanied 
by a control class in the same school, consisting of the same 
number of children, studying under normal conditions in the 
ordinary warm, well-ventilated schoolroom. His results are 
rather surprising. 

He finds, for example, that children in the heated school- 
room gain more rapidly in weight than children in the open- 
air class. The number of absences from cold, sore throat, 
and contagious diseases were notably more in the open-air 
classes than in the regular classes. Moreover, carefully 
administered mental tests seem to show that there were 
practically no differences apparent either in the alertness 
of the children or in their ability to succeed in whichever 
class they had happened to join. According to the results of 
this study Dr. Bliss would feel that the value of the open- 
air class in Montclair is distinctly to be questioned. He sug- 
gests, however, that a possible explanation of the success 
in other cities is that in most cases the ventilating systems 
of schoolhouses are distinctly inferior to those in use in 
Montclair. He feels that, in Montclair, the experiment 
was one concerning the comparative value of cold fresh air 
versus warm fresh air. In other cities he thinks the experi- 
ment has been the comparative value of cold fresh air versus 
warm foul air. In the latter case, he suggests, it is probable 
that the open-air class would have distinctly beneficial 
effects upon the pupils. In finishing his report Dr. Bliss 
states that one of the interesting features of the experiment 
was that the parents were imanimously in favor of the open- 
air class work. They claimed that almost without exception 
their own children were greatly benefited by the plan. They 
asserted that children were less nervous, and ate and slept 
better than ever before. 

The results of Dr. Bliss's experiment are not conclusive. 



266 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

but they are highly suggestive. That open-air classes in 
most cases have proved beneficial to the children is a fact so 
clearly demonstrated that it cannot easily be shaken. Ex- 
periments such as that at Montclair do indicate, however, 
that we have yet to learn what it is about the usual open- 
air class which functions so effectively. Should success be 
attributed to low temperature, temperature changes, humid- 
ity, breezes, special feeding, sleep and rest periods, ungraded 
classes, picked teachers, or to a combination of these ele- 
ments? It is strongly to be hoped that further classes will 
be carried on under experimental conditions, and definite 
scientific information secured. 



QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 

1. Is it better to have one large open-air school for a community, or to 
have single open-air classes in several buildings? One building espe- 
cially designed for feeble-minded children, or "backward" classes in 
each school? What should be done with incorrigible cases? 

2. Can the schools properly be charged with caring for insane children? 
For feeble-minded? For epileptic? At what age should such depend- 
ents be placed in institutions? How long should they stay? Why may 
they not be left at large? What means of dealing with the problem 
other than segregation have been suggested? 

3. If it is well for foreigners to associate as much as possible with English- 
speaking children, why is not the plan of placing them in primary 
grades and promoting them as they learn English better than placing 
them in regular classes for foreigners? 

4. Suppose that you have in your school system separate classes for 
children who are deaf, blind, crippled, anaemic, defective in speech, 
incorrigible, foreign, retarded through absence, slow, borderland, 
moderately feeble-minded, low-grade feeble-minded, normal, and 
bright. Arrange these classes in order according to the professional 
preparation required of the teachers in charge, and the amount of 
salary you would be willing to pay. 

5. Suppose you are in charge of a small school system where each type 
of mental, physical, or social handicap is represented by only one or 
two children, what arrangements would you make to care for them? 

6. What are the commonest forms of mental tests? Into what general 
groups do they fall? What quality is each supposed to test? 

7. If open-air classes are good for weak children, why would they not be 



EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 267 

desirable for all children? If you were a school superintendent, what 
proportion of your rooms would you turn into open-air classrooms? 
Why? If funds are not available for extra feeding, is it better to have 
cold-air rooms without school feeding, or not to have any open-air 
rooms at all? 
8. In the ordinary heated classroom where there is no other form of 
ventilation, do open windows in a warm climate furnish more or less 
frequent changes of air than in a cold climate? 



SELECTED REFERENCES 

Ayres, Leonard P. Open-Air Schools. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York. 
(1910.) 

Non-technical account of the history and essential features of the open-air school 
plan; with bibliography. 

Mitchell, David. Schools and Classes for Exceptional Children. Cleveland 
Education Survey Monograph. Russell Sage Foundation, New York. 
(1916.) 

Best discussion of the theory of "socially competent vs. socially incompetent chil- 
dren." 

Psychological Clinic. Published monthly. See files. 

Contains many suggestive articles on treatment of mentally-defective children. 

Terman, L. M. The Measurement of Intelligence. Houghton Mifflin Com- 
pany. (1916.) 

Readable statement of the problem, with careful directions for giving mental tests, 
together with a careful revision and description of the Binot-Simon tests for intelli- 
gence. 

Whipple, G. M. Manual of Menial and Physical Tests. Warwick & York, 
Baltimore. (2 vols., 1914, 1915.) 

Comprehensive account of mental tests commonly used. 

Witmer, Lightner. The Special Class for Backward Children. University of 
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Psychological Clinic Press. (1911.) 
Readable account of an educational experiment with backward children. 



CHAPTER XIV 

SCHOOL FEEDING 

The argument for school feeding. The three meals a day 
to which the adult American has become accustomed are 
spaced at too long intervals one from the other for the com- 
fort and health of most children. The growing child needs 
something to eat in the middle of the morning and in the 
middle of the afternoon, as well as at morning, noon, and 
night. Were he at home he probably would receive extra 
food at these periods, but when schools are in session, he 
must either eat a hasty lunch at recess or go without extra 
food during the several hours between breakfast and the 
noon meal. Moreover, many children are so situated that 
they cannot go home in the middle of the day for a hot meal. 
In some cases the schools are at too great a distance from 
the house, in others the parents are absent during the middle 
of the day and cannot prepare hot meals for their children. 
In all these cases three things may happen: the child may 
go without any food during the recess or noon period, he 
may bring a cold lunch from home, or he may purchase from 
neighboring stores and pushcarts. 

Very few people reahze the enormous amounts of money 
which are spent each year by school children for pickles, 
cakes, and candy, to eat during school recesses. In large 
cities the pushcart business makes literally thousands of 
dollars a year from this source alone, and in fact so impor- 
tant has the children's trade become that pushcart men and 
near-by store owners have actually secured injunctions 
against school authorities prohibiting the sale of candy or 
ice cream to school children, on the grounds that such sales 



SCHOOL FEEDING 269 

injure the natural trade of the food purveyors in the com- 
munity. 

It is because of the fact that children need food between 
meals, and that children are actually now provided with 
money and are buying the food from neighborhood dealers, 
that the organizers of the school-lunch movement have 
urged the necessity of providing such food, prepared under 
direct supervision of school authorities and sold at cost to 
the children. In cities where such service is not provided 
actual investigation has shown that children spend their 
money for a sausage and roll, pretzel, cinnamon bun, iced 
cakes, marshmallow cakes, hot corn rolls, candy eggs, 
licorice, chocolate peppermints, and candy rolls; whereas 
if given an opportunity they would gladly spend the same 
amount of money for such things as bean soup, rice pudding, 
cocoa, milk, royal lunch crackers, graham crackers, spice 
wafers, dates, milk chocolate, and stick candy. By actual 
experiment it has been found that purchases of the same 
degree of food value cost exactly twice as much on the 
average when made from the street vender as when made 
in the school lunchroom. 

The Philadelphia experiment. In 1894 the Star Center 
Association of Philadelphia started a penny-lunch service 
at the James Forten School, Sixth and Lombard Streets. 
The School-Lunch Committee of the School and Home 
League was an outgrowth of the original School-Lunch 
Committee of Star Center, and the first of its kind in the 
United States. In October, 1907, the service of the Forten 
School was reorganized and service in two additional schools 
begun. In May, 1910, in order to have an organization elas- 
tic enough to meet the growing demand for school lunches, 
and which could readily be extended to all public schools, 
the School-Lunch Committee was organized as a standing 
committee of the Home and School League of Philadelphia. 



270 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

In September, 1911, this School-Lunch Committee under- 
took a definite experiment in order to find out, first, whether 
or not children will buy wholesome food at school if given 
the opportunity, and what price they can pay for it; and 
second, to demonstrate a method of serving school lunches 
which would (a) maintain a definite standard of food and 
service at the lowest possible cost, and (6) become support- 
ing to the extent of food costs, preparation, and service. 
The experiment was carried on for five years under the im- 
mediate direction of Dr. Alice C. Boughton, secretary of the 
committee. At the end of the five-year period a report was 
published by the School-Lunch Committee, giving its find- 
ings and recommending that the committee be discontinued 
as a private organization, and that the work be taken over 
and administered as part of the regular public school system. 
This is the most important experiment in school feeding of 
which we have as yet any record; and much of the material 
which is presented in this chapter is taken from or suggested 
by the Reports rendered by the Philadelphia School-Lunch 
Committee. 

What school lunches are. In certain schools of Phila- 
delphia the penny lunch was served during the morning 
recess. It consisted of: (1) one or two hot dishes, such as 
rice pudding, cocoa, creamed lima beans, macaroni with 
tomato sauce, bean soup, cream of tomato soup, succotash, 
cream of corn soup; (2) milk; (3) crackers, such as royal 
lunch, hard pretzels, ginger-snaps, graham, spice wafers, 
oatmeal crackers, and others; (4) jam sandwiches, made of 
royal lunch crackers and apple butter or jam; (5) fresh, 
dried, or stewed fruit; (6) clear sugar candy, peppermints, 
and sweet chocolate; (7) ice-cream sandwiches, cut six to a 
five-cent block. Each portion cost one cent and represented 
one hundred calories, of fuel value. Children were urged to 
buy the hot dish or milk, but were not forced to do so. 



SCHOOL FEEDING 271 

At many of the special classes and open-air classes more 
elaborate meals were served. These varied, from the three- 
cent Imich, which consisted usually of a double-size portion 
of soup with bread and sometimes fruit, to full and elabo- 
rate meals. Children in the open-au- classes, for example, 
were in some cases given breakfasts, recess lunch, dinner, 
and afternoon lunch by the school authorities, and care 
was taken to provide a plentiful supply of nourishing food 
at each of these meals. In many American cities the food for 
the open-air class costs about thirty cents a day per child, 
and represents approximately three thousand calories. It is, 
of course, true that where school lunches are already being 
provided for all children at cost, the expense of providing 
more ample meals at noon for special classes is very consid- 
erably reduced, because of the attendant saving in equip- 
ment and food materials which can be effected through the 
larger organization. 

Theory of school feeding. There are two opposing theo- 
ries of school-lunch service, both of which are now repre- 
sented in existing practice in the United States. In the first 
place, it is claimed that the lunch service is a matter of 
charity. It provides food for those children who are too 
poor to secure proper nourishment at home. Where this 
point of view is held, it is not uncommon to find that the 
lunchroom is established and maintained through private 
auspices cooperating with the public school authorities. 
Money is raised from various sources, and expended for the 
more needy children. In a few instances the pubHc school 
authorities themselves have established and conducted the 
lunch service, but still regard it as a matter of charity to be 
carried on in the poorer portions of the city. The other and 
newer theory is that the school lunch meets a real need of 
all growing children, regardless of their economic and social 
status. The child of the rich is as apt to be hungry in the 



272 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

middle of the morning as the child of the poor, and is surely 
as much in need of wholesome food. Charity must often 
provide for the poorer children, but school lunches them- 
selves are not primarily a charitable concern. 

The concessionnaire. It is a very common practice in the 
United States to run school lunches on the so-called *' con- 
cessionnaire " plan, whereby the school provides room, 
equipment, heat, and light, and gives the privilege of pre- 
paring and selling food to certain persons who carry on the 
school lunch as a profitable business. Sometimes the con- 
cessionnaire is a neighboring caterer or delicatessen owner. 
Frequently it is a woman of the community who takes this 
way of earning extra money. The concessionnaire is usually 
subjected to very slight supervision. Sometimes the work is 
very well done. All too frequently, however, the food pur- 
chased is of poor quality, it is badly cooked, and sold to the 
students at exorbitant prices. Naturally if the work is car- 
ried on as a business investment the concessionnaire plans 
to get as much money as he can for as little outlay as pos- 
sible. The students, naturally, must often get the worst of 
the bargain. By far the better plan is to have regular sales- 
women and their helpers hired directly under the direction 
of the superintendent of school lunches, and subject to care- 
ful supervision by her department. 

The supervisor. The school-lunch organization should be 
part of the department of school hygiene, and the supervisor 
of lunches should be directly subordinate to the director 
of school hygiene. She should have the same standing as 
the medical inspector and psychologist, and should be her- 
self a trained dietitian with considerable experience in the 
organization of school-lunch service. 

The duties of the supervisor are many. They include, in 
the first place, the standardization of equipment and serving 
utensils. If the school lunch is to be spread over the entire 



SCHOOL FEEDING 273 

city, it must be, if not entirely at least very nearly, self- 
supporting. This means that the greatest care must be 
exercised to secure the best and most durable material at 
the lowest possible cost. Utensils must be simply designed, 
easily cleaned, and yet attractive in appearance. 

In the second place, the supervisor must be responsible 
for the standardization of lunch service and of recipes. 
Under the old method each concessionnaire made her own 
recipes, purchased her own food, and displayed it any way 
she saw fit. The skillful supervisor of lunches attends to all 
these matters, so that not only will the food purchased be 
of standard quality, but it will be prepared according to 
standard methods, and be displayed to the children in such 
a way as to be appetizing and desirable. Much of the suc- 
cess of the school lunch depends upon the skill of the sales- 
person in awakening children's appetites. 

In the third place, the supervisor must attend to the 
engaging and training of sales-people. This is an immensely 
important part of her work, since most of the good effect 
of the lunch can be entirely spoiled if careless, poorly trained, 
or imcleanly women are put in charge of the service in the 
individual schools. 

Fourth, the supervisor must attend to the standardiza- 
tion of record blanks and account forms. This is particu- 
larly important in a large system. If the lunch is to be self- 
supporting, the most minute care is necessary in gathering 
and keeping records and in analyzing accounts. It is only by 
closest kind of calculation and planning that a deficit can 
be avoided at the end of the year. 

Fifth, the supervisor must arrange for the extension of 
lunch service to new schools. She must plan all lunchrooms 
and order all equipment. 

Sixth, she must be a person sufficiently well prepared to 
handle all publicity material, such as exhibits, reports, and 



274 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

special articles, answer correspondence, and give talks in 
public on the subject of school feeding. 

Saleswomen. A saleswoman is needed for each school 
where lunch is served. The qualifications for saleswomen 
vary according to the amount of work required from them. 
In schools where cooking is actually done on the premises, 
the woman must be a good practical cook, with some under- 
standing of the simpler facts of dietetics. Much of the in- 
formation necessary for good work can be acquired during 
service under careful supervision. Whether cooking is actu- 
ally done on the premises or not, the saleswomen must be 
able to keep accurate accounts and to make friends with 
children. When saleswomen are only required for short 
periods during each day, excellent workers may frequently 
be found among the married women of the community who 
understand simple housework and are glad to earn a little 
extra money. The saleswoman prepares the hot dishes which 
are cooked at the school, keeps account of materials used, 
sends in requisitions for increased supplies, takes charge of 
the actual selling of the food to children, receives all money, 
and takes care of certain small bills from her petty cash 
account. It is well to have a plan whereby every saleswoman 
shall report once each week in person to the head of the 
school-lunch division. Where schools are very large, or 
heavy amounts of cooking must be done, saleswomen must 
often have under their direction one or more assistants, 
who should be appointed and paid by the central office. 

Pupil workers. In some schools an effort is made to put 
the entire responsibility for school lunches upon the shoul- 
ders of the older girls who are taking courses in domestic 
science. It is claimed that this work makes domestic science 
a practical subject and gives the girls valuable experience. 
Undoubtedly there is much truth in this statement, but as a 
regular policy the scheme is open to severe criticism. Food 



SCHOOL FEEDING 275 

is to be served at low cost and yet the system is to be self- 
supporting. It is necessary to provide very simple menus 
which include comparatively few dishes, and those served 
over and over again. Where school children are used to pre- 
pare and serve the food, the tendency is to sacrifice the 
actual teaching of cooking in order to have the school lunch 
run on an economical basis. The girls cook the same things 
over and over, and after the first few days they fail to gain 
much valuable experience or information from their tasks. 
Domestic-science classes may occasionally assist with the 
school lunch with great benefit to themselves, but they 
should not be caUed upon to carry it throughout the year. 
In the same way, while it is often desirable to have a few 
children assist in serving and clearing up, it is not well to 
have the same children do this for long periods of time. The 
oflSce of assistant should be regarded as an honor, and be 
awarded to new candidates at frequent intervals. It is 
usual where children serve as helpers to give them a free 
meal in exchange for their labors. 

Centralization of the school lunch. One of the most 
important factors in making the school lunch self-support- 
ing is to see to it that down to the smallest detail everything 
is planned out and nothing is left to chance. Where cities 
are willing to pay the extra cost it may be well to leave much 
to the initiative of the individual school or saleswoman; but 
where it is necessary to cut expenses down to the very low- 
est figure, the most careful planning and standardization is 
called for. This means, for example, that food for all the 
schools in the city shall be ordered from a central depart- 
ment, so that not only shall the quality of raw food be imi- 
form, but that full advantage may be taken of the discount 
which is given on wholesale purchases. 

In the same way all menus and the recipes followed should 
be prepared by the dietitian at the central office. This is 



276 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

particularly important where not only must the element of 
cost be carefully calculated, but also the amount of food 
value in each penny portion. Long and careful study is 
necessary in order to be sure that the highest possible food 
value is being given to school children at the lowest possible 
cost. This work, by its very nature, cannot be undertaken 
by the less highly trained sales-person at the individual 
school. In working over the matter of food value the 
Philadelphia School-Lunch Committee found that the 
manufacturers of staple food articles are frequently not 
only willing but glad to have the opportunity to have their 
own food products analyzed by a food chemist, so that 
the schools may know the number of calories in each unit 
of their products. Manufacturers regard the school-lunch 
business as distinctly valuable, and are glad to go out of 
their way in order to assist the school dietitian in making 
such calculations. 

In some systems cooking is done at each individual school. 
By far the most economical and eflicient arrangement is to 
have central kitchens established in the high schools and 
centrally located elementary schools, in which cooked food 
for all the schools in the surrounding districts shall be pre- 
pared. The food is packed in heat-retaining receptacles, 
and is delivered to the individual schools either by messenger 
or by automobile. The plan of centralized cooking secures 
not only a saving in cost and preparation, but frequently 
insures a more palatable result, since higher-paid cooks may 
be employed in the central kitchen than would be possible 
where cooking is done at each of the separate schools. 

Hygienic requirements. It is often suggested that school 
teachers should be required to undergo careful physical 
examination before they are allowed to enter upon their 
duties. Such a provision is even more desirable in the case 
of saleswomen who handle food sold to children. The exam- 



SCHOOL FEEDING 277 

ination of saleswomen, and the giving of free medical advice 
whenever necessary, should be a regular part of the medical 
inspector's duty. In the actual work of^the lunchroom sales- 
women and pupil assistants should be required to wash their 
hands before touching any food. Saleswomen should wear 
white aprons which entirely cover their regular garments, or 
else should have a working uniform which is used only while 
on service. Street garments of saleswomen should not be 
hung in the kitchen, but should be placed in special ward- 
robes provided for that purpose. 

In serving food care should be taken that articles which 
are likely to catch dust, such as dates, figs, candy, and cer- 
tain types of crackers, are carefully wrapped in oiled or 
waxed tissue paper so that dust cannot reach them. It is 
not necessary to place all food upon dishes. Some articles 
may be carefully piled on squares of paper placed on the 
counter. After all the food is arranged the entire counter 
should be covered with white cloths, and kept covered 
except when the food is actually being sold. Tables and 
counters should either be made with glass or white enameled 
tops so that they can be washed down every day with hot 
water, or they should be covered with strips of white oil- 
cloth which are washed and removed to a safe place after 
the meal. Food is usually given out on the self-service plan; 
that is, it is piled on counters and children are allowed to 
pass single file before the counter and select what they want 
to eat. It is usually a good idea to have buckets filled with 
cold water placed near the exit to the lunchroom, and in 
this all children shall place their soiled dishes as they leave 
the room. This practice makes dishwashing much easier and 
prolongs the life of enamelware. In speaking of the question 
of school hygiene the Philadelphia Report reads as follows : — 

The lunchrooms and adjacent halls should be swept with damp 
sawdust at least once a day; cement floors, when provided with 



278 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

proper drains, should be washed at least once a week, and oftener 
in stormy weather. If cement floors are cold, damp, and hard, slat 
mats at counter, sink, and door should always be provided. They 
are easily kept clean. 

The ventilation of basement lunchrooms is diflScult, for generally 
they are not included in the ventilating system of the school. When 
windows are open in wet and windy weather, rain pours in, or else 
dust and dirt from the street. On this account it is better to close 
the windows during the lunch period and air the room before and 
between recesses, when the lunchroom counter is covered. 

Records and forms. In a system where cost is an impor- 
tant featm'e it is essential that the most careful record- 
keeping system be installed. It is, however, very difficult 
for unprofessionally trained women, such as most of the 
saleswomen must necessarily be, to keep accounts accurately 
without special instructions. This is one of the reasons why 
it is so wise to insist that every saleswoman shall report at 
the office of the supervisor of the school lunches once a week. 
At this time she carries with her her weekly reports of money 
received, food given out, and the like, and has an oppor- 
timity to confer with the supervisor on the subject of account- 
keeping. Much of the most efficient supervision can be 
given during these office interviews. Watch can be kept 
upon the work of all the people without there being any 
feeling of spying or criticism. Principals of schools and sales- 
women should be provided with loose-leaf notebooks of 
uniform size, and so far as possible all the report blanks 
should be of this same size so that they may be filed away 
together in one cupboard. The forms needed must vary 
with the individual system. The forms suggested by the 
Philadelphia School-Lunch Committee as desirable are the 
following: — 

Farm 1 — Time sheet. The time sheet has on it a space for every 
day in the month, with the words arrived and left, for each day. 
This sheet is kept in the office of the principal at the school, and 



SCHOOL FEEDING 279 

the saleswoman puts under the word arrived the hour at which she 
reaches the school, and under the word left the hour at which she 
is ready to go. Each month this sheet is countersigned by the 
principal and brought to the central oflSce. 

Form 2 — Cash capital account. This form is filled out by the 
individual saleswoman and balanced monthly. It shows the 
amount of petty cash on hand, cash received, cash expended, and 
balance at the end of the month. 

Form 3 — Week order slip. Filled out by the individual sales- 
woman, telling the amount of goods on hand at the school, and an 
estimate of the goods which will be needed during the coming week. 

Form 4 — Memoranda. Uniform slips giving date, school, and 
name of saleswoman, to be used for all memoranda, whether for 
orders for food, new or renewed equipment, changes in the recipes 
or service, or the like. 

Form 5 — School recipes. Name of school, name of article, 
number planned to serve, ingredients needed, and directions for 
cooking. 

Form 6 — School-luncheon account. A loose-leaf account sheet, 
kept by months for each school. Name of school, name of sales- 
woman, luncheon recipes by week, cost of food, and sundry cash 
expenditures. 

Form 7 — Weekly menu sheet. Showing recipes prepared each 
day, materials used, number of portions made, and date sold. 
This form is turned into the oflSce each week. 

Form 8 — Salaries due. Order from the supervisor of school 
lunches, showing the amount of salaries due each of the saleswomen. 

Form 9 — Order sheet. Giving address to which material shall be 
sent, and initials of person actually placing the order. 

Form 10 — ■ Table arrangement form. Blank showing table arrange- 
ment of different foods. The success in selling various foods de- 
pends upon the order in which they are arranged on the counter. 
Children are apt to take those things which are near the front and 
are apt to overlook those at the back, unless the ones farther away 
are familiar dishes which they have already tried. Saleswomen 
find it a distinct help to receive suggestions from headquarters 
as to the way in which food shall be arranged upon the counter, 
and the amount of each article which shall be served as a penny 
portion. 

Form 11 — Transfer of food. Blank showing record of food ma- 
terial transferred from one school to another. It shows the date. 



280 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

school from which food is taken, school to which it is delivered, 
name of food, amount, and cost. 

Form 12 — Yearly summary. For individual schools, showing 
by months the number of different forms of lunches sold, receipts, 
cost of food, and salary charges, gain or loss. 

Form 12a — Monthly summary. The same thing by months for 
all schools. 

Form 13 — Yearly recapitulation sheet. Recapitulation sheet for 
all schools, showing by months total receipts, total sales of hot 
food, and per cent of hot food sold as compared with cold food. 

Form 14- — Cracker list. List by individual schools, showing for 
each month the different kinds of crackers sold and the cost of 
each. Similar forms are kept for other kinds of food materials 
purchased at each school. 

Form 15 — Equipment inventory. List of equipment at a given 
school. Duplicates of the list are kept at the different schools and 
at the central office. 

Form 16 — Food inventory. List for each school showing food 
materials on hand when inventories are made, at the beginning 
and end of each year, and at intervals throughout the year. 

Costs. The Philadelphia experiment worked out a rather 
careful system of cost-accounting. The main divisions in 
the administration of the Philadelphia lunch service were 
equipment, overhead charges, supervision, food preparation, 
and service. So far as practicable the committee divided 
costs under these groups for individual schools, as well as 
for the system as a whole. Under these groups this method 
of cost division showed: first, the cost of every part of the 
service at every school; second, furnished opportunity for 
comparing costs in the various schools; and third, gathered 
material for formulating working standards applicable to 
all schools. Probably no small part of the success of the 
committee in making the system self-supporting was due 
to this careful method of cost-accounting. 

It is usually very hard to make any careful estimate of 
overhead charges for school lunches because, in general, 
lunchrooms are established in basement playrooms or un» 



SCHOOL FEEDING 281 

used classrooms, where the proper rental charge is diflficuR 
to ascertain. Rent, Hght, water, gas, and janitor service 
should be charged to the account of the school lunch, 
according to the amount it utilizes, but any such charge is 
at present very difficult to place. 

1. Equipment. The Philadelphia Report shows that the 
initial cost of new school equipment is about ten cents 
per child. Such equipment lasts five years. It consists of 
cooking- and serving-utensils, the former of blocked tin, the 
latter the best grade of Swedish white enamel. The cost is 
kept down by having children served in relays and having 
dishes washed between serving, by buying equipment of 
durable quaUty, and by serving certain foods, such as crack- 
ers or fruit, without dishes. In 1912-13 the Philadelphia 
committee spent 2.46 cents per child for new and renewed 
equipment. The following year it spent 1.29 cents per child. 
Fixed equipment, such as gas range, sink, closet, cooking- 
and serving-tables, and benches are permanent, and no 
special fund need be set aside for their renewal. Excepting 
where the more expensive centralized kitchens are to be 
installed, the cost of equipping a lunchroom in an elementary 
school does not exceed one hundred and fifty dollars, and in 
many cases need not exceed one hundred dollars. 

2. Supervision. According to the Philadelphia Report the 
cost of supervision varies with: (1) the degree to which the 
service is organized; (2) the type of service, whether indi- 
vidual or on the central kitchen plan; (3) the number of 
portions served; (4) the per capita expenditure; (5) the price 
per unit. In general, supervision in elementary schools is 
more costly than in high schools. In the elementary school 
the group served is generally smaller, has less money, and 
is affected by the seasons, weather, and outside attractions. 
Children spend their pennies for horns at Halloween, and 
tops and skipping-ropes durmg the first warm days of spring. 



282 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

In Philadelphia high schools about one dollar out of every 
nine dollars is spent on supervision. In the elementary 
schools one dollar out of every six dollars. In 1913-14, in 
the elementary schools, the cost of supervision was about 
twenty-four one hundredths of a cent per penny portion. 
This charge included not only the actual supervision of the 
lunch system, but the original conception and organization 
of the system. The committee believed that after the sys- 
tem was organized and in full running order the charge 
could be greatly reduced. It held that in a system covering 
three hundred elementary schools, supervision for each por- 
tion served should not be more than three one himdredths 
or four one hundredths of a cent. This expenditure would 
insure for the children clean, wholesome lunches, served in 
a clean place, under conditions which would insure their 
getting right food standards. 

S. Preparation and service. It was found in Philadelphia 
that the preparation and service cost varied inversely with 
the number of children served. In small schools it was some- 
times as much as one and eight one hundredths cents per 
portion, while in large schools with large attendance and 
well-placed equipment it ran as low as twenty-six one hun- 
dredths of a cent per portion. It is believed that by careful 
planning and a system of central kitchens the cost of service 
would be very materially decreased. Each portion served 
was planned to represent one hundred calories of food value, 
and could usually be sold for three fourths of a cent when 
the cost of supervision and service was not included. Here 
again cost may be materially decreased by a system of 
buying at wholesale and in quantities for the entire system. 
A very careful study must be made of school conditions 
if lunch sales are to be maintained at a high standard. It 
was found at Philadelphia that an average of sixty pennies 
was spent for every one hundred children in attendance 



SCHOOL FEEDING 283 

daily. The one factor affecting the sales was age. The 
younger children spent less than the older ones, excepting 
in the kindergarten, where children were given more money 
than the children in the first and second grades. The aver- 
age expenditure per child per year was about $1.20. Lunch 
sales were largely affected by weather and season of the year, 
but did not parallel the curve of school attendance. During 
the winter months hot food was largely bought, regardless 
of the particular attendance during that time. The a la carte 
plan was more popular than table d'hote; that is, the chil- 
dren preferred a choice of three-penny units to a three-cent 
combination. More lunches were sold at the ten o'clock 
recess than at any other time. 

The children's taste varies not only with the different nationali- 
ties and localities, but at different ages and according to the 
weather and time of year. The colored children like their food 
very sweet; the Jewish, theirs very salty; some children will not 
eat rice pudding without raisins; others will not eat it with raisins. 
The menu for any school is a matter of nice adjustment among a 
conflicting set of "musts." The lunch must appeal to the children; 
it must average the standard amount; and it must be self-support- 
ing. It takes time and thought to reconcile these differences to 
reach the point where children get their money's worth of food 
they like which measures up to the standard. 

The Philadelphia Report. The Report of the Philadelphia 
School-Lunch Committee has been quoted at some length 
in this chapter, because the report itself was written ex- 
pressly for the purpose of recording the results of a scientific 
experiment in education, and for furnishing to students of 
education the information which they need in order to 
understand what is involved in the establishment of a sys- 
tem of school lunches on a large scale. It is to be hoped that, 
from time to time, private organizations carrying on edu- 
cational experiments will outline as clearly the problems 
to be solved, keep as careful and scientific a record of the 



284 HEALTHFUL SCHOOLS 

progress of the work, and when the conclusion is reached 
present the data secured in a form which may readily be 
utilized by school administrators throughout the country. 
The School-Lunch Committee of the Philadelphia Home 
and School League has made a real contribution to educa- 
tional knowledge. 

QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 

1. Is the school board justified in spending money for coal with which 
to warm children from the outside? Would it be justified in spending 
money for food with which to warm children from the inside? What 
if any difference exists between the social principles involved? 

2. Local shopkeepers object to school lunches on the ground that they 
interfere with trade. How far is this claim a valid reason against 
school feeding? 

3. How much choice should children have in deciding what they will 
eat? Should they be allowed to buy ice cream and nothing else? What 
about candy? Some children will eat mush if it is given free, but will 
not buy it. Is this an argument against including mush in free menus? 

4. Should mothers be allowed to buy the school lunch and eat with their 
children? What arrangements should be made? 

SELECTED REFERENCES 

Boughton, Alice C. Household Arts and School Lunches. Cleveland Educa- 
tion Survey Monographs. Division of Education, Russell Sage Foun- 
dation, New York. (1916.) 

Careful survey study of school-lunch system in a large city. 

Bryant, Louise Stevens. School Feeding. J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia. 
(1913.) 
Its organization and practice at home and abroad. Best book on the subject. 

Bryant, L. S., and Boughton, A. C. Symposium : The School Feeding Move- 
ment and Administration of School Luncheons. Psychological Clinic 
Press, Philadelphia, Pa. (April 15, 1912.) 

Burnham, W. H. F. Food and Feeding, in Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education. 
The Macmillan Company, New York. (1911.) 

Gives argument for school feeding. 

School Lunch Committee, Home and School League, Alice C. Boughton, 
Superintendent. Annual Reports. Home and School League, 1505 
Land Title Building, Philadelphia, Pa. 
Most valuable series of reports on the Philadelphia experiment. 



INDEX 



Acetylene gas, 81, 82, 83. 

Air {see also Ventilation), 33, 34; 
cleaning, 127, 131, 152; inlet posi- 
tion, 151; moistening, 152. 

American Association for Promoting 
Hygiene and Public Baths, 104. 

American School Board Journal, 14, 
30. 

Anderson, Mrs. E. M., ventilation, 
133. 

Assembly rooms, fire protection, 163. 

Athletics, 241-48; badge test, 242; 
girls, 243, 244-47; group, 243; 
importance, 241; league of public 
schools, 244. 

Atmosphere. See Heating, Ventila- 
tion, Air. 

Attics, 25, 48; fire protection, 161. 

Auditorium, doors, 163; exits, en- 
trances, 39, 163; lighting, 39, 40; 
location, 15, 39, 163; stage, 39; 
toilets, 39; uses, 39. 

Auditoriums, 39, 40; wardrobes, 39. 

Ayres, L. P., address before N.E.A., 
130. 

Ayres, L. P. and May, Health Work 
in the Public Schools, 226; Public 
Schools of Springfield, Illinois, 87; 
School Buildings and Equipment, 
12, 123. 

Ayres, May, A Century of Progress in 
Schoolhouse Construction, 65. 

Ayres, May, and Cooper, F. I., Safe- 
guarding Schoolhouses from fire, 
180. 

Barnard, Henry, 62; School Archi- 
tecture, 12. 

Basement, 23-25; dimensions, 24; 
doors, 172; fire protection, 172; 
uses, 23, 24, 37, 40, 100, 106, 115, 
172. 

Bass, Dr., 149, 154. 

Baths, 97-99, 103; rural, 99; show- 
ers, 98. 



Bins, fuel, 37, 172; paper towels, 97; 
fire protection, 37, 172, 174; waste, 
172. 

Blackboards, classroom, 51, 52, 53, 
54; cleaning, 195; color, 73; light- 
ing, 54, 67, 75; location, 54, 75; 
material, 52, 53. 

Bliss, Dr. F. E., Supt. Schools, Mont- 
clair, N.J., experiment with open- 
air schools, 265. 

Bolts and catches for doors, 163, 
164, 168. 

Boughton, Alice C, Household Arts 
and School Lunches, 284. 

Boughton, Dr. A. C, school-feeding, 
270. 

Boy Scouts, 250, 251, 256. 

Brewer, I. W., Rural Hygiene, 104. 

Brookline, Mass., School Survey Re- 
port, 180. 

Bruce, W. G., School Architecture, 
30, 65, 87. 

Bryant, L. S., School Feeding, 284. 

Bryant, L. S., and Boughton, A. C, 
Symposium: The School Feeding 
Movement and Administration of 
School Luncheons, 284. 

Building, apportionment of space, 
16-17; architect, 13; basement, 
23-25; ceilings, 33-35; cleaning, 
181-206; community use, 16; 
floors, 26-28; foundation, 21; 
height, 6, 19-20; lighting, 7; mate- 
rial, 20, 161; orientation, 20-23; 
plans, 14-16; plans, unit, 17-18; 
remodeling, 16; roofs, 5-26; rooms, 
31-50; site, 1-11, 22. 

Burgerstein, Leo, School Hygiene, 
49, 65, 87. 

Burnham, W. H. F., Food and Feed- 
ing, 284. 

Calisthenics, 234, 237. 
Camp-fire Girls, 250, 251, 256. 
Carbon dioxide gas, 127, 128, 133. 



INDEX 



Ceilings, 33-35, 37; dispensary, 46; 
laboratories, 37; toilets, 107. 

Census, influence on locating school, 
23; recreation, 227. 

Chairs, adjustment, 57; cleaning, 
197; location, 56; minus distance, 
59; pedestal, 62; shape, 58. 

Chalk, 53, 79; dust, 55; trays, 193. 

Chapin, C. V., Sources and Modes of 
Infection, 207. 

Classroom, see Special classrooms; 
ceilings, 33-35; dimensions, 31-33, 
34; equipment, 51-64; exercises, 
237; lighting, 32; seating, 32; size 
of class, 33. 

Classrooms, color scheme, 73; open- 
air, 38, 39. 

Cleaning, erasers, 55, 195. 

Cleaning the schoolhouse, 181-206; 
air, 127, 131, 152; basement, 24; 
blackboards, 53, 195; ceilings, 46, 
107, 198; corridors, 27; disease 
transmission, 183-87; doors, 29; 
dusting, 190-92; floors, 27, 38, 
188-90, 192; furniture, 197; un- 
portance, 183-88; janitor, 181; 
kindergarten room, 38; lunch- 
room, 14; oiling, 27, 193; preven- 
tion of contagious diseases, 187; 
schedule, 203; service, 202; sweep- 
ing, dusting, 190-92; toilets, 107, 
110, 112, 196; vacuum cleaners, 
198; walls, 24, 28, 46, 107, 195, 
196, 201; washing, 192, 203; wm- 
dows, 70, 71, 74, 197. 

Cleanliness of school children, edu- 
cation, 95, 98; showers, 98, 99; 
soap, 97, 100, 113; towels, 97; 
tubs, 100. 

Cleveland, Ohio, recreation survey, 
252. 

Clinics, 210, 219. 

Colds, 28, 126, 127, 186. 

Color schemes in classroom, black- 
boards, 51, 73, 77, 79; ceilings and 
walls, 73, 107; chah-s and desks, 
73; shades, 71. 

Community, use of school building, 
libraries, 53. 

Compulsory education, related to 
exceptional children, 259; related 
to medical inspection, 208. 



Concessionnaire, 272. 

Conferences with medical staff, 221, 
233. 

Consolidated schools, architecture, 
14. 

Cook, William A., Schoolhouse Sani- 
tation, 12. 

Cooper, F. I., Committee on Standard- 
ization of Design, etc., 16, 30. 

Cooper, F. I. and Ayres, May, Safe- 
guarding Schoolhouses from Fire, 
180. 

Cornell, U.S., Health and Medical 
Inspection of School Children, 226. 

Corridors, 24, 27; fire protection, 
162. 

Crane, A. N., pool sanitation, 102. 

Crowley, R. H., Hygiene of School 
Life, 226. 

Cubberley, E. P., School Organiza- 
tion and Administration, 12. 

Cupboards, 37, 173. 

Damp-proof foundation, 21-22. 

Decoration of school corridors, 163, 
165. 

Desks, 56-63; adjustment, 57; clean- 
ing, 197; color, 73; height, 60; 
lighting, 68, 71, 84, 85; location, 
56, 57; minus distance, 59; mov- 
able top, 61; shape, 58; top-slant, 
60, "61. 

Dunensions of classrooms, 31-35. 

Director of Dept. of Hygiene, 214, 
233. 

Disease, lesson of, 25; transmission 
of, 183-87, 196. 

Diseases of children, colds, 28, 126, 
127, 186. 

Diseases of school children, 28, 114, 
116, 126, 127, 186; hookworm, 116; 
prevention, 36, 186, 187, 196, 209; 
tuberculosis, 132, 183, 185, 188. 

Disinfectants, classroom, 197; sun- 
light, 20, 186, 187; toilet, 109, 196. 

Dispensary, 45, 46, 219; equipment, 
46. 

Domestic science room, 24; fire pro- 
tection, 174. 

Domestic science students as lunch- 
room assistants, 274. 

Doors, 29, 163; bolts and catches. 



INDEX 



287 



162, 163, 164, 168; double, 168; 
fire escape, 169, 170, 171; glass 
panel, 75; railroad, 167-68; self- 
closing, 35, 162, 172; toilets, 112, 
121; wardrobes, 35, 163-64. 

Drains, bathroom, 98; cement floor, 
98, 278; eaves, 23; foundation, 22; 
ground, 9-10; septic tank, 118; 
toilet, 108, 109. 

Draughts, 26, 28. 

Dressing-rooms, 35, 99. 

Dresslar, Fletcher B., American 
Schoolhouses, 12, 14, 21, 30; Rural 
' Schoolhouses and Grounds, 21, 123; 
School Architecture, 65; School Hy- 
giene, 12, 30, 65, 87, 104, 124, 
226; School Plant, 87. 

Drinking-cups, 92, 186. 

Drinking fountains, 92; height, 94; 
home-made, 94. 

Dust, absorbing compounds, 191; 
chalk, 55; cleaning, 190. 

Economy in schoolbuilding, 14, 15, 
17, 19, 22, 23, 25, 34; fire protec- 
tion, 178; roofs, 26. 

Elevators, 19, 38. 

Entrances and exits, auditorium, 39, 
163; domestic-science room, 174; 
fire escape, 169; furnace and boiler- 
room, 172; kindergarten, 37; lab- 
oratory, 37; library, 43; lunch- 
room, 44; wardrobe, 35, 163-64. 

Equipment of classroom, 51-64; 
blackboards, 51-55; erasers, 55; 
furniture, 56-64; open-air, 39; plat- 
form, 51; stage, 39. 

Erasers, 55, 56, 195. 

Exceptional children, 257-66; classes, 
262; educational treatment, 258; 
groups, 257; socially competent, 
259; socially incompetent, 260. 

Faneuil Hall Committee, 180. 
Fans for heating and ventilating, 37, 

149. 
Feeding. See School feeding. 
Fire escapes, 168, 169; essentials of, 

170; inclined plane, 169. 
Fire prevention, auditorium, 39, 163; 

janitor's room, 48; lunchroom, 45; 

storerooms, 37, 48, 173. 



Fire protection of schoolbuilding, 20, 
23, 25, 26, 91, 160-79, 205; attics, 
161; basement, 172; corridors, 162; 
doors, 163; drills, 176; economy 
of, 178; escapes, 168, 169;, extin- 
guishers, 176; kitchen, 45; labora- 
tories, 37; manual training and 
domestic science, 37, 174; old 
buildings, 165, 166; pipes, 174; 
retarding, 161; signals, 176; 
sprinklers, 175; stairs, 164; wires, 
174. 

Floors, 26-28, 188, 194; auditorium, 
39; basement, 24-25, 27; cleaning, 
188, 190, 192; corridors, 27; cover- 
ing, 27; dispensary, 45; gymna- 
sium, 40, 193; janitor's room, 47; 
kindergarten, 27, 38; kitchen, 45; 
material, 26; oil and tar, 193; 
special classrooms, 27, 37; store 
rooms, 48; toilets, 107, 113, 196. 

Flues, 146. 

Follow-up work of Medical Inspec- 
tion Dept., 220. 

Foundation, 9-10, 21-22. 

Fountains, drinking, 92-94. 

Furnace, 142; room, 172; humidify- 
ing apparatus, 130, 142-44, 152- 
53, 154. 

Furniture, see Desks and Chairs; 31, 
36, 38, 44, 45, 46, 47, 56-62; ad- 
justable, 57; color, 73; dispensary, 
46; janitor's room, 47; library, 44; 
lunchroom, 44, 45; movable, 62; 
office, 46; teachers' room, 46; 
workroom, 63. 

Games, athletic, 241-48; classroom, 

237; recess, 238; space for, 6, 230; 

supervision, 232, 238, 239, 240, 

241. 
Gardening, 5, 6, 8, 9-10. 
Germs, see also Diseases of school 

children; germicides, 186, 187, 192; 

transmission theories, 183-87, 196. 
Gongs, 176. 
Ground air and ground damp, 8, 9, 

10, 21. 
Grounds of school, disadvantages of 

high, 7-8; size, 5-7. 
Gulick, Dr. L. H., ventilation, 132. 
Gulick, Dr. Luther H. and Ayres, 



INDEX 



L. P., Medical Inspection of 
Schools, 226. 
Gymnasium, 25, 40, 43; classes, 234; 
floors, 40, 193; instructors, 233, 
239; lavatories, 95. 

Hanmer, Lee F. and Perry, Clarence 
A., Recreation in Springfield, 111., 
256. 

Health of rural and city children 
compared, 28, 115, 240. 

Heating, 7, 23-24, 43, 125-58; fans, 
149; furnaces, 142; hot water, 144; 
humidostats, 154; legislation, 140; 
lesson of contagious disease, 125; 
steam, 145; stoves, 141; survey re- 
sults, 126; temperature, 126, 127, 
129, 133, 135, 137-38, 153; thermo- 
graph, 153; thermometers, 153; 
thermostats, 154. 

Heating and ventilation combined, 
24, 125-58; direct method, 146; 
direct-indirect, 146; indirect 
method, 146-52; individual and 
double duct system, 148. 

Height of building, 19-20. 

Height of rooms, 32-33. 

Hill, Leonard, 128-29, 135. 

Hoag, E. B. and Terman, L. M., 
Health Work in the Schools, 226. 

Hose, 108, 176, 200. 

Household-economy, plans of class- 
rooms, 42. 

Humidifying apparatus, 130, 142- 
44, 152-53, 154. 

Humidity, 130, 135-36, 154. 

Humidostats, 154. 

Huntington, Ellsworth, 137. 

Hygiene, exceptional children, 262. 

Hygiene and Physical Education 
Department, 227-55; activities, 
227-28, 232, 234, 240; branches, 
Medical Inspection Dept., 214, 
233; Physical Training and Recre- 
ation Dept., 227-55; School Lunch 
Dept., 269-84; clinics, 210, 219; 
field, 210, 218, 220; staff, 214-18, 
233-34, 272-75. 

Hygiene textbooks, 224. 

Improvement of old schools, base- 
ment, 24-25; building, 23, 73, 198; 



doors, 168; fire protection, 162, 
163, 165, 166, 167, 173, 175; foun- 
dations, 10, 23; landings of stair- 
ways, 165, 166; lighting, 10, 25, 73; 
site, 10; stairs, 165, 166. 

Indirect heating, 146; 40, 84. 

Ingraham, Joseph W., 62. 

International Y.M.C.A. college, 
Springfield, Mass., Ventilation 
Studies, 158. 

Ipswich, Mass., survey, 251. 

Janitor, 181, 204, 205. 

Janitor's room, 47. 

Janitor service, improvement of, 
202. 

Johnson, Dr. G. E., Education 
through Recreation, 256. 

Journal of Industrial and Engineer- 
ing Chemistry, 159. 

Kerosene, 80. 

Kunball, Mr. G. G. of New York 
Commission, 139. 

Kindergarten, 37-38; floor, 27, 38, 
193; lavatory, 38, 96; toilets, 38, 
114. 

Kitchen, 45; central, 276; equipment, 
271; open-air classes, 38-39; water 
supply, 91. 

Knight, Howard R., Play and Recre- 
ation in a Tovm of 6,000, 256. 

Laboratory, 37, 84. 

Ladder fire escapes, 168, 170, 171. 

Lamps, acetylene gas, 81; kerosene, 
80. 

Landings on stairs, 165-66. 

Latrine toilets, 109. 

Lavatories, 24, 37, 95, 113; kinder- 
garten, 38; importance, 186-87; 
location, 24, 113; soap, 97, 114; 
towels, 97, 114; water-supply, 95. 

Lavoisier, 127. 

Legislation, census, 2-3; heating, 
140; sanitation, 108; site of build- 
ing, 2, 7, 255; size of school 
grounds, 6; ventilation, 140; zones 
around schools, 4-5, 10. 

Libraries, 43, 44; community use, 
43; furniture, 44; lighting, 43. 

Lighting, artificial, 10, 76-86; acet- 



INDEX 



yiene gas, 81, 82, 83; auditorium, 
39; basement, 172; dangers, 77-80; 
desks, 68; fire protection, 175; in- 
direct, 84; kerosene, 80; labora- 
tories, 84; libraries, 43; plant, 82; 
semi-indirect, 85, 86; stage, 39; 
toilet, 106. 

Lighting, natural, 7, 28, 66-76; as 
germicide, 20, 186-87, 192; audi- 
torium, 24, 25, 39-40; basement, 
37; bathrooms and pool, 98, 100; 
blackboards, 54, 67, 75; breeze- 
windows, 66; color schemes, 73; 
glass area, 67; kindergarten, 37; 
manual training rooms, 36-37; old 
buildings, 10, 25, 73, 74, 75; ori- 
entation, 67; overhead, 70; related 
to school location, 7; rules for, 7, 
32-33, 37, 67-69; toilets, 106-07; 
stairs, 164; unilateral, 66. 

Linoleum, 27, 38, 190. 

Luncheon, 268-84; argument for, 
268; branch Dept. of Hygiene, 269- 
84; centralization of, 275; conces- 
sionnaire, 272; cost, 280; menus, 
270; open-au- classes, 38, 264; 
Philadelphia experiment, 269, 283; 
preparation, 282; reports, 278; 
theory, 271. 

Lunchroom, 44; accessibility, 44; 
cleaning, 277; equipment, 281; 
kitchen, etc., 45; staff, 274, 282; 
uses, 44, 45; ventilation, 278. 

Mann, Horace, 56, 62. 

Manual-training room, 24, 37, 41, 
174. 

Mason, Water Supply, 104. 

McCormack, W. R., schoolroom 
plans, 19. 

McCurdy, Dr. J. H., re-circulation 
of air, 154. 

McCurdy, Dr. J. H., Springfield 
Y.M.C.A. experiment, 131. 

Medical inspection, 208-25; admin- 
istration of department of school 
hygiene, 214; arguments against, 
211; class, 218; clinics, 219; com- 
pulsory education and, 208; fol- 
low-up work, 220; growth, 209-10; 
individual, 218; method, 218; 
nurses, 216; origin, 209; physi- 



cians, 215; records, 28, 219; scope, 

210; staff attitude, 221. 
Medical inspector, 215. 
Miller, James Alexander, of New 

York Commission, 135. 
Minneapolis, Minnesota, Board of 

Education, 30. 
Minus distance between desk and 

chair, 59. 
Mitchell, Dr. David, Schools and 

Classes for Exceptional Children, 

257. 
Monroe, Dr. Paul, Cyclopedia of Edu- 
cation, 30, 50. 
Montclair, N.J., open-air schools, 

264. 
Morrison, A.C., 82. 
Movable furniture, 36, 62. 

National Education Association, 
Committee on Standardization of 
Schoolhouse Design and Construc- 
tion, 16-17, 30. 

New York State Commission on 
Ventilation, C.C.N.Y., 159. 

Nurses, 216. 

Office, 46. 

Oilhig floors, 26, 193. 

Open-air classes, 132-33, 263-66; 
luncheon, 38, 264, 271. 

Open-air classrooms, 38, 39, 197, 
263; equipment, 39, 197, 263; es- 
sentials, 263; lighting, 197; Mont- 
clair experiment, 269. 

Orientation, 20-21, 67; classrooms, 
20-21, 67; kindergarten, 37; spe- 
cial rooms, 36; toilets, 106; win- 
dows, 67. 

Out-door theater, 6. 

Overhead lighting, 10, 40, 70-71. 

Paul, Dr., of Breslau, 129. 

Philadelphia experiment with school 
lunches, 269, 283. 

Philadelphia tower fire escape, 169. 

Physical Education and Recreation 
Dept., staff, 227. 

Physical Training and Recreation 
Dept., 227-55; administration, 
232; athletics, 241; branch of 
Dept. of Hygiene and Physical 



290 



INDEX 



Education, 227; classroom exer- 
cises, 237; cooperation with medi- 
cal inspection, 233; educational 
sports, 247; physiological age, 236; 
playground, 6, 24, 230-32; play- 
ground games, 238, 242; posture 
work, 234. 

Physical training, recess, 238. 

Physicians, 215. 

Pipes, 19, 174. 

Pittsburgh, Pa., Dept. of Buildipg, 
Program of Construction and 
Equipment for Grade Schools, 17. 

Plans, building, 14-20; household- 
economy rooms, 42; manual- 
training rooms, 41. 

Platform, auditorium, 39; classroom, 
51. 

Playground, 6, 19, 25, 240; super- 
vision of, 232; use of, 231, 232. 

Plenum fan system, 29, 150. 

Plot, size, 5-7. 

Plumbing, 19. 

Plus distance between desk and 
chair, 59. 

Pools, 100; construction of, 100; 
cost of filtration, 102; disinfecting, 
101 ; regulations, 103. 

Posture, 234. 

Pressure of water supply, 91. 

Prism glass. See Window. 

Privy, 121-22. 

Public highways as locations for 
schools, 3-4. 

Rapeer, L. W., School Health Ad- 
ministration, 226. 

Ravenal, Hygiene of Swimming 
Pools, 104. 

Reception-room, 46. 

Recess, 238. 

Re-circulation of air, 154-56. 

Recreation, 227-55; activities out- 
side school hours, 240; athletics, 
241-48; classroom games, 237; 
commercialized, 228; cooperation 
with medical inspection, 233; play- 
ground games, 238; recess, 238; 
space, 230; supervision, 232, 238- 
41; surveys, 227; use of school 
plant, 248. 

Report of Joint Committee of Na- 



tional Council of Education and 

American Medical Association, 

117. 
Roofs, 25-26, 71, 161; uses, 19, 25, 

38. 
Rooms, 31-50; dimensions, 31-35; 

list required, 18; orientation, 20- 

21, 67; special, 36-37, 84. 
Rowe, S. H., The Lighting of School 

Rooms, 87. 
Rmming track, 6. 
Russell Sage Foundation, Division 

of Education, 180, 229. 

Safety Engineering Magazine, 180. 

Saleswomen, lunchroom, 274. 

Sanitary Schoolhouses, 124. 

Sanitation of schoolhouse, 20, 24. 

Sawtooth lighting, 70. 

School-Lunch Committee, 269, 276. 

Semi-indirect lighting, 85, 86. 

Septic tank, 118-20. 

Sewing-room, 36, 96, 197. 

Shades, 71-73, 75, 187. 

Showers, 24, 98. 

Shutters, 73, 75. 

Site of school building, 1-11, 22; 
improvement of old, 10; summary 
of requirements, 11. 

Skylights, 10. 

Soap, 97. 

Soil, 8-10. 

Special classrooms, 36; defective 
children, 36; lighting, 84; mov- 
able furniture, 36. 

Spiral fire escape, 170. 

Sports, educational, 247. 

Springfield, Mass., recreation sur- 
vey, 250. 

Springfield Y.M.C.A. experiment, 
131. 

Springs and wells, 88. 

Sprinklers, 175-76. 

Stage, 39. 

Stairs, 32, 34, 164, 165-66, 168. 

Steam heat, 145. 

Stereopticon, 39. 

Stiles, C. W., The Sanitary Privy, Its 
Purposes and Construction, 124. 

Storerooms, 37, 84, 173. 

Stoves, 141. 

Sunlight. See Orientation. 



INDEX 



291 



Supervisor of Physical Education 

and Recreation Department, 233. 
Supervisor of school luncheons, 272- 

74. 
Survey, heating and ventilation, 126; 

rural sanitary, 117; suggestions 

for recreation, 250. 

Teachers, of feeble-minded, 261; 

playgroimd and, 233, 239. 
Teachers' room, 46, 47. 
Temperature of school room, 126, 

127, 129, 133, 135, 137-38, 153. 
Terman, Lewis M., Hygiene of the 
School Child, 226; Section on 
Buildings of the Salt Lake City 
School Survey, 87; The Building 
Situation and Medical Inspection, 
65. 
Thermograph, 153. 
Thermometers, 153. 
Thermostats, 154. 

Thorndike, Ed. L., Ruger, G. J., and 
McCall, W. A., Effects of Outside 
Air and Re-circulated Air upon 
Intellectual Achievement and Im- 
provement, 159. 
Toilets, 105-23; auditorium, 39; au- 
tomatic flush dangers, 141; ceil- 
ings, 107, 196; cleaning, 196; dan- 
ger of contagion from, 186; doors, 
106, 112, 121; dry privies, 122; dug 
privies, 121; equipment location, 
108; extra rooms, 114; floors, 107, 
113, 196; high schools, 115; hook- 
worm, 116; individual flush, 110; 
kindergarten, 37; latrmes, 109; 
lavatories, 113; lighting, 24, 106; 
location, 24, 106; L.R.S., privy, 
121; number, 108, 114; open-air 
classes, 38; outhouses, 122; parti- 
tions, 112; rural schools, 155, 118, 
120; rural surveys, 117; sanitation, 
24; seats, 113, 196; septic tank, 
118; typical, 105; urinals, 109; ven- 
tilation, 114; walls, 107, 196. 
Towels, 97, 113, 186. 
Transoms, 29. 
Transportation of pupils, 2, 10, 

20. 
Tuberculosis, 55, 132, 183, 185, 
188. 



Unilateral lighting, 32, 66. 
Unit Plan Building, 17-19. 
Urinals, 109, 122. 

Vacuum cleaners, 198; tools, 201; 
types, 198-201. 

Ventilation, 33, 125-58; air cleaning. 
152; air moisteners, 152; carbon 
dioxide gas, 127-31; engineer, 139; 
experiments, 128-32; fans, 126, 
129, 137, 149; flues, 146; humido- 
stats, 154; laboratories, 37; legis- 
lation, 140; lesson of contagious 
diseases, 125; New York State 
Ventilating Commission, 133; 
principles of, 135; re-circulation, 
154; schemes, 145; stoves, 141; 
toilets, 114; transoms, 29; ward- 
robes, 35-36; window, 34, 66, 73, 
132, 146. 
Von Pettenkofer, 127. 



Walls, 28-29; basement, 24, 25, 172; 
cleaning, 107, 195; dispensary, 46; 
finish, 73, 75, 77; fire escape, 166; 
materials, 24, 28, 73, 107, 161, 
162; toilets, 107. 
Wardrobes, 19, 35, 36, 39, 163. 
Waste bins, 172. 

Water supply, 88-104; carrying by 
hand, 89; cooler attachments, 94; 
equipment, 97; fire protection, 
175; fountains, 92-95; hot, 96; 
individual cup, 92; lavatories, 95; 
pressure, 91; school wells, 91; 
showers, 98; springs and wells, 88; 
tubs and pools, 100. 
Wells, 88, 90. 
Wider uses of school plant, 16, 39, 

76, 248-50. 
Wind break, 7-8, 10. 
Windows, 33, 66-76, 197-98; audi- 
torium, 24, 25, 39-40; basement, 
24, 37; blinds, 73; calculating 
space, 69; cleaning, 197; dimen- 
sions, 67, 69; flues, 146; frames, 
68, 69; glass, 10, 67, 69-70, 74, 107 
library, 43; location, 7, 10, 67, 68 
prism glass, 69; shades, 71, 72 
special rooms, 36; styles, 66, 67 
70, 107; toilets, 106-07, 115; ven- 
tilating, 34, 06, 126, 132, 146. 



292 



INDEX 



Whipple, Guy Montrose, Questions 

in School Hygiene, 12; Value of 

Pure Water, 104. 
Winslow, E. A., Chairman of New 

York Committee on Ventilation, 

146. 
Wires, fire protection, 174. 



Witmer, Lightner, The Special Class 
for Backward Children, 267. 

Yard of School, 5-7, 230-32. 

Zero distance between chair and 

desk, 59. 
Zone, 4-5, 10. 



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